Upright walking was typical for. Human ability to walk upright

bipedalism

Cycle of walking: support on one leg - double support period - support on the other leg ...

Walking man- the most natural human locomotion.

There are other definitions that characterize this locomotion:

"... synergies covering the entire musculature and the entire motor apparatus from top to bottom"
"... a cyclic act, that is, a movement in which the same phases are periodically repeated again and again."

• • Walking is a motor action, the result of the implementation of a motor stereotype, a complex of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes.
  • Walking is a motor skill, which is a chain of sequentially fixed conditioned reflex motor actions that are performed automatically without the participation of consciousness.

Words that are close in meaning:

• en:gait - walking.
• "gait" en: walking - features of postures and movements when walking, characteristic of a particular person.
• "Posture" en: Posture - the usual position of the human body at rest and movement, including when walking.

Types of walking

Types of walking should not be confused with types of gait. Walking is a motor act, a kind of motor activity. Gait - a feature of a person's walking, "manner of walking"

Walking tasks

Tasks of walking as an important locomotor function:

• Safe linear translational movement of the body forward (the main task).
• Maintain vertical balance, prevent falling when moving.
• Conservation of energy, the use of a minimum amount of energy due to its redistribution during the step cycle.
• Ensuring smooth movement (sudden movements can cause damage).
• Gait adaptation to eliminate painful movement and effort.
• Preservation of gait under external disturbing influences or when changing the plan of movements (Stability of walking).
• Resistance to possible innervation and biomechanical disorders.
• Optimization of movement, first of all, increasing the efficiency of safely moving the center of gravity of the masses with the least energy consumption.

Walking Options

General walking parameters

The most common parameters characterizing walking are the line of movement of the center of mass of the body, stride length, double step length, foot turn angle, support base, movement speed and rhythm.

• The base of the support is the distance between two parallel lines drawn through the centers of the support of the heels parallel to the line of movement.
• Short stride is the distance between the heel pivot point of one foot and the heel pivot point of the contralateral leg.
• The turn of the foot is the angle formed by the line of movement and the line passing through the middle of the foot: through the center of the heel support and the point between the 1st and 2nd fingers.
• The rhythm of walking is the ratio of the duration of the transfer phase of one leg to the duration of the transfer phase of the other leg.
• Walking speed - the number of large steps per unit of time. Measured in units: step per minute or km. at one o'clock. For an adult - 113 steps per minute.

Biomechanics of walking

Walking for various diseases is studied by the section of medicine - clinical biomechanics; walking as a means of achieving a sports result or increasing the level of physical fitness is studied by the section of physical culture - sports biomechanics. Walking is studied by many other sciences: computer biomechanics, theater and ballet art, military science. The basis for the study of all biomechanical sciences is the biomechanics of a healthy person walking in natural conditions. Walking is considered from the standpoint of the unity of biomechanical and neurophysiological processes that determine the functioning of the human locomotor system.

Biomechanical structure of walking = + + +

The temporal structure of walking is usually based on the analysis of the results of the podography. Podography allows you to register the moments of contact of various parts of the foot with the support. On this basis, the time phases of the step are determined.

The kinematics of walking is studied using contact and non-contact sensors for measuring angles in the joints (goniometry), as well as using gyroscopes - devices that allow you to determine the angle of inclination of a body segment relative to the line of gravity. An important method in the study of the kinematics of walking is the cyclography technique - a method for registering the coordinates of luminous points located on body segments.

The dynamic characteristics of walking are studied using a dynamographic (power) platform. When supporting the power platform, the vertical reaction of the support is recorded, as well as its horizontal components. To register the pressure of individual sections of the foot, pressure sensors or strain gauges are used, mounted in the sole of the shoe.

The physiological parameters of walking are recorded using the electromyography technique - registration of muscle biopotentials. Electromyography, compared with the data of methods for assessing the temporal characteristics, kinematics and dynamics of walking, is the basis for the biomechanical and inervation analysis of walking.

Temporal structure of walking

A simple two-terminal subgram

The main method for studying the temporal structure is the podography method. For example, the study of walking using the simplest, two-contact electropodography consists in using contacts in the sole of special shoes, which close when supported on a biomechanical track. The figure shows walking in special shoes with two contacts in the heel and forefoot. The period of contact closure is recorded and analyzed by the device: closure of the rear contact - support on the heel, closure of the rear and front contacts - support on the entire foot, closing of the front contact - support on the forefoot. On this basis, build a graph of the duration of each contact for each leg.

Step time structure

The main research methods: cyclography, goniometry and assessment of the movement of a body segment using a gyroscope.

The cyclography method allows you to register changes in the coordinates of the luminous points of the body in the coordinate system.

Goniometry is a change in the angle of the joint by a direct method using angular sensors and non-contact according to the analysis of the cyclogram.

In addition, special sensors are used gyroscopes and accelerometers. The gyroscope allows you to register the angle of rotation of the body segment to which it is attached, around one of the axes of rotation, conventionally called the reference axis. Typically, gyroscopes are used to assess the movement of the pelvic and shoulder girdle, while sequentially registering the direction of movement in three anatomical planes - frontal, sagittal and horizontal.

Evaluation of the results allows you to determine at any moment of the step the angle of rotation of the pelvis and shoulder girdle to the side, forward or backward, as well as rotation around the longitudinal axis. In special studies, accelerometers are used to measure, in this case, the tangential acceleration of the lower leg.

To study walking, a special biomechanical track covered with an electrically conductive layer is used. Important information is obtained when conducting a cyclographic study, traditional in biomechanics, which, as is known, is based on recording the coordinates of luminous markers located on the subject's body by video-film photography.

Walking dynamics

The dynamics of walking cannot be studied by direct measurement of the force that is produced by the working muscles. To date, there are no widely used methods for measuring the moment of force of a living muscle, tendon or joint. Although it should be noted that the direct method, the method of implanting force and pressure sensors directly into a muscle or tendon is used in special laboratories. A direct method for studying torque is also carried out using sensors in lower limb prostheses and joint endoprostheses. An idea of ​​the forces acting on a person when walking can be obtained either in determining the effort in the center of mass of the whole body, or by registering support reactions. In practice, the forces of muscle traction during cyclic movement can only be estimated by solving the problem of inverse dynamics. That is, knowing the speed and acceleration of a moving segment, as well as its mass and center of mass, we can determine the force that causes this movement, following Newton's second law (force is directly proportional to body mass and acceleration).

The real walking forces that can be measured are the ground reaction forces. Comparison of the reaction force of the support and the kinematics of the step makes it possible to estimate the value of the joint torque. Calculation of the muscle torque can be made on the basis of a comparison of the kinematic parameters, the point of application of the support reaction and the bioelectrical activity of the muscle.

Support reaction force

The reaction force of the support is the force acting on the body from the side of the support. This force is equal and opposite to the force exerted by the body on the support.

Vertical component of the support reaction force

Vertical component of the support reaction vector.

The graph of the vertical component of the support reaction during normal walking has the form of a smooth symmetrical double-humped curve. The first maximum of the curve corresponds to the time interval when, as a result of the transfer of body weight to the skating leg, a forward push occurs, the second maximum (rear push) reflects the active repulsion of the leg from the supporting surface and causes the body to move up, forward and towards the skating limb. Both maximums are located above the level of body weight and, respectively, at a slow pace, approximately 100% of body weight, at an arbitrary pace 120%, at a fast pace - 150% and 140%. The support reaction minimum is located symmetrically between them below the body weight line. The occurrence of a minimum is due to the rear push of the other leg and its subsequent transfer; in this case, an upward force appears, which is subtracted from the weight of the body. The minimum support reaction at different rates is the body weight, respectively: at a slow pace - about 100%, at an arbitrary pace - 70%, at a fast pace - 40%. Thus, the general trend with an increase in the pace of walking is an increase in the values ​​of the front and rear shocks and a decrease in the minimum of the vertical component of the support reaction.

Longitudinal component of the support reaction force

Longitudinal component of the support reaction vector it is, in fact, a shear force equal to the force of friction, which keeps the foot from sliding anteroposteriorly. The figure shows a graph of the longitudinal support reaction as a function of the duration of the step cycle at a fast walking pace (orange curve), at an average pace (magenta) and a slow pace (blue).

Point of application of the support reaction force

Ground reaction - these forces are applied to the foot. Coming into contact with the surface of the support, the foot experiences pressure from the side of the support, equal and opposite to that which the foot exerts on the support. This is the reaction of the support of the foot. These forces are unevenly distributed over the contact surface. Like all forces of this kind, they can be represented as a resulting vector, which has a magnitude and an application point.

The point of application of the reaction vector of support on the foot is otherwise called the center of pressure. This is important in order to know where is the point of application of the forces acting on the body from the side of the support. When examining on a power platform, this point is called the point of application of the support reaction force.

The trajectory of the application of the support reaction force

Main biomechanical phases

An analysis of the kinematics, support reactions and the work of the muscles of various parts of the body convincingly shows that a regular change of biomechanical events occurs during the walking cycle. "Walking of healthy people, despite a number of individual characteristics, has a typical and stable biomechanical and innervation structure, that is, a certain spatio-temporal characteristic of movements and muscle work" .

A full cycle of walking - a double step period - is composed for each leg from the support phase and the limb transfer phase.

When walking, a person consistently leans on one or the other leg. This leg is called the supporting leg. The contralateral leg is brought forward at this moment (This is the portable leg). The swing phase is called the swing phase. A full cycle of walking - a double step period - is composed for each leg from the support phase and the limb transfer phase. During the support period, the active muscular effort of the limbs creates dynamic shocks that impart to the center of gravity of the body the acceleration necessary for translational movement. When walking at an average pace, the stance phase lasts approximately 60% of the double step cycle, the swing phase approximately 40%.

The beginning of a double step is considered to be the moment of contact of the heel with the support. Normally, the landing of the heel is carried out on its outer section. From now on, this (right) leg is considered to be the supporting one. Otherwise, this phase of walking is called the front push - the result of the interaction of the gravity of a moving person with a support. In this case, a support reaction arises on the support plane, the vertical component of which exceeds the mass of the human body. The hip joint is in the flexion position, the leg is straightened at the knee joint, the foot is in the position of slight dorsiflexion. The next phase of walking is the support on the whole foot. The weight of the body is distributed on the front and back sections of the supporting foot. The other, in this case, the left leg, maintains contact with the support. The hip joint maintains the flexion position, the knee bends, softening the force of inertia of the body, the foot takes a middle position between the back and plantar flexion. Then the lower leg leans forward, the knee is fully extended, the center of mass of the body moves forward. During this period of the step, the movement of the center of mass of the body occurs without the active participation of the muscles, due to the force of inertia. Support for the forefoot. After about 65% of the time of the double step, at the end of the support interval, the body is pushed forward and upward due to active plantar flexion of the foot - a rear push is realized. The center of mass moves forward as a result of active muscle contraction. The next stage - the transfer phase is characterized by the separation of the leg and the displacement of the center of mass under the influence of inertia. In the middle of this phase, all major joints of the leg are in the position of maximum flexion. The cycle of walking ends with the moment of contact of the heel with the support. In the cyclic sequence of walking, moments are distinguished when only one leg is in contact with the support (“one-support period”) and both legs, when the limb extended forward has already touched the support, and the one located behind has not yet come off (“double-support phase”). With an increase in the pace of walking, the "two-support periods" are shortened and completely disappear when switching to running. Thus, in terms of kinematic parameters, walking differs from running in the presence of a two-support phase.

Walking efficiency

The main mechanism that determines the effectiveness of walking is the movement of the common center of mass.

movement of the CCM, Transformation of kinetic (T k) and potential (E p) energy

The movement of the common center of mass (MCM) is a typical sinusoidal process with a frequency corresponding to a double step in the mediolateral direction, and with a double frequency in the anterior-posterior and vertical direction. The displacement of the center of mass is determined by the traditional cyclographic method, indicating the general center of mass on the body of the subject with luminous dots.

However, it is possible to do it in a simpler, mathematical way, knowing the vertical component of the support reaction force. From the laws of dynamics, the acceleration of vertical movement is equal to the ratio of the reaction force of the support to the mass of the body, the speed of vertical movement is equal to the ratio of the product of acceleration to the time interval, and the movement itself is the product of speed to time. Knowing these parameters, one can easily calculate the kinetic and potential energy of each step phase. The potential and kinetic energy curves are, as it were, mirror images of each other and have a phase shift of approximately 180°. It is known that the pendulum has a maximum potential energy at the highest point and turns it into kinetic energy, deviating downward. In this case, some of the energy is spent on friction. During walking, already at the very beginning of the support period, as soon as the GCM starts to rise, the kinetic energy of our movement turns into potential energy, and vice versa, it turns into kinetic energy when the GCM goes down. Thus, about 65% of the energy is saved. Muscles must constantly compensate for the loss of energy, which is about thirty-five percent. Muscles turn on to move the center of mass from the lower position to the upper one, replenishing the lost energy.

Walking efficiency is related to minimizing the vertical movement of the common center of mass. However, an increase in the energy of walking is inextricably linked with an increase in the amplitude of vertical movements, that is, with an increase in walking speed and step length, the vertical component of the movement of the center of mass inevitably increases.

During the stance phase of the stride, there is constant compensatory movement that minimizes vertical movement and ensures smooth walking.

In the process of human evolution, signs of upright posture gradually formed: a balanced head position, an S-shaped spine, an arched foot, a wide pelvis, a wide and flat chest, massive bones of the lower extremities, and the orientation of the shoulder blades in the frontal plane. The S-shaped spine is a kind of shock absorber for axial loads.

As you know, there is an forward bend in the cervical region - cervical lordosis, a back bend in the thoracic region - thoracic kyphosis, an anterior bend in the lumbar region - lumbar lordosis. Due to the natural curves, the strength of the spine to axial load increases. With sudden and excessive loads, the spine, as it were, "folds" into an S-shape, protecting the discs and ligaments of the spine from injury, and then straightens out like a spring.

The upright skeleton allows humans to move, unlike other animals, on two legs, transferring weight from the heel to the forefoot, which turns each step into a balancing exercise. The load is transferred through the tibia. The fulcrum is on the toe. The force is created by the Achilles tendon, which, when the calf muscles contract, raises the heel. The arches of the foot “extinguish” inertial loads upon landing, which reach up to 200% of body weight. Natural, balanced head posture allows the long axes of the orbits to be facing forward. This is a distinguishing feature of a person from his anthropoid "brothers", in which the head is suspended on the occipital muscles (anthropologists determine the position of the head by the structure of the base of the skull and cervical vertebrae).

The balanced position of the head eliminates the stretching of the posterior ligaments of the neck and the need for constant tension of the muscles of the neck, mainly, unlike animals, the muscles of the upper trapezium. In the process of historical development, mankind has passed a difficult path.

Signs of upright walking: balanced head position, S-shaped spine, arched foot, wide pelvis, wide and flat chest, massive bones of the lower extremities, orientation of the shoulder blades in the frontal plane.

With the development of civilization, the requirements for the musculoskeletal system have changed. If the ancient people were either in a vertical or horizontal position (hunted, gathered, fought, lay down, resting), then already in the 17th century 10% of the population performed sedentary work. In the 21st century, the number of such workers has increased to 90%. In the process of evolution, a person stopped adapting to the environment and began to adapt the environment to himself, and this could not but affect his posture. The invention of a bench, a chair (this is probably the 15th century) significantly changed the biomechanics of a person, a new problem appeared - “the posture of a person sitting on a chair”. A modern person spends most of his time sitting at work, at home, in transport, working, studying, relaxing, waiting, eating.

The “sitting” position, optimal for office work and training, is a severe test for the musculoskeletal system. It is in this position that posture most often suffers. It is a long sitting posture that causes back pain, and the cause of various diseases. The 18th century is the century of mass schooling. This progressive historical process also has a downside. According to the Russian Institute of Pediatric Orthopedics, 40-80% of children have posture disorders, and 3%-10% of them have various curvature of the spine, the so-called school scoliosis.

With the development of civilization, the content, organization and methods of human labor change. Office workers are a new mass profession, whose number is more than 60% of the total working population. The need for long-term adherence to a sitting working posture (working at a computer, with documents, with clients) leads to an increase in the number of diseases of the musculoskeletal system of the adult population. The number of such diseases is steadily growing, they are getting younger, and this trend is likely to continue in the foreseeable future.

One of the most important questions in the problem of the origin of man is which of the modes of movement of primates was a prerequisite for bipedal walking.
Charles Darwin believed that our ancestors were tree animals.
One of the theories - "brachiator" - believed that only brachiation could lead to a good development of the collarbone, to a wide chest, to the ability of supination and pronation of the limbs. According to this theory, the common ancestor of hominids and pongids was a brachiator.
Proponents of another theory - originally four-legged walking - considered the similarity of the hands of a monkey and a person to be convergent: both work and climbing on branches led, according to these researchers, to the same result. Studying the features of the foot in humans, monkeys and other mammals - hedgehog, rat, marmot, etc. - they believed that the human foot is closest to the macaque foot type, i.e. man did not have adaptations for either brachiation or jumping, as Jones Wood, a supporter of the origin of man from the tarsier, bypassing the ape stage, believed.

Brachiation is now regarded as an extreme adaptation to an arboreal lifestyle.
One of the theories is the theory of cruration: according to it, bipedal walking was preceded by walking along the branches in a half-upright position (cruration). Some authors believe that the human ancestor could at the same time rely on his fingers, as do modern large apes, other authors consider vertical climbing important for the emergence of bipedalism.

It should be noted that none of the proponents of the arboreal stage meant exclusively arboreal life. With all the adaptability of the foot to ground movement, it retains the features of the arboreal locomotion of its ancestors, for example, there is a muscle that abducts the first toe. The ability to abduct the first finger is developed in many climbing mammals, for example, in rats, marsupials, and some rodents. One of the prerequisites for the development of upright walking may have been upright sitting, which is characteristic of all primates.

Paleontological data do not provide sufficient material to resolve this discussion. Egyptopithecus was probably a quadrupedal tree monkey, similar to the howler monkey, he hung from the branches with his hands and feet. Dryopithecus, proconsul, pliopithecus have a generalized skeleton similar to broad-nosed, thin-bodied and great apes. The structure of their shoulder joint shows great freedom of the hand. Their locomotion could also include brachiation. It is believed that the group of Miocene hominoids was heterogeneous in the development of locomotion, pliopithecus was an arboreal quadruped, proconsul was a semi-brachiator, and dryopithecus walked on the joints of the forelimbs. Miocene hominoids show signs of straightening of the body, but only initial signs. In some later forms - for example Oreopithecus - a more upright position of the body is observed. This is evidenced by five massive lumbar vertebrae, the structure of the upper end of the thigh, the large width of the ilium, and other signs. In the forelimb there were also signs of brachiation - movement on the hands: this is the lengthening of the forelimb, the mobility of the carpal joint, the curvature of the phalanges and metacarpus. Modern pongids have retained the brachiator complex. The ability of the arms to span up to 180 degrees, to wide pronation and supination, and the grasping type of the hand with opposition of the first finger are important arguments in favor of the arboreal stage of primates.

In the process of anthropogenesis, the traits of brachiatoric specialization could be forced out, but they still remained in the early Australopithecus. Their forelimbs are longer than their hind ones, the toe phalanges are long and curved, and they are similar in skeletal structure to the great apes.
The ability to straighten the body position is one of the main features of primates. According to some assumptions, the original type of locomotion was vertical clinging and jumping. All modern primates, when sitting, take a straightened position of the body, and many are capable of vertical forms of movement, including bipedalism, this ability is especially well expressed in great apes, in which the supporting role of the hind limb increases. However, the bipedal locomotion of great apes is the bipedal locomotion of a four-legged animal standing on two legs. At the same time, the body is tilted forward, the spine is curved, and there is no lumbar lordosis. When the body is straightened, it throws back along with the pelvis. The lower limbs are bent at the knee joints, there is no rotational movement of the pelvis, and the body seems to roll over with each step.

http://answer.mail.ru/question/13315969
http://www.examens.ru/answer/8/9/680.html
http://www.sunhome.ru/journal/16241
http://medbiol.ru/medbiol/antrop/00010554.htm

Testing on the topic "The origin of man"

1) dryopithecines 2) australopithecines 3) gibbons 4) pithecanthropes

2 . The initial stages of the development of art are found in anthropogenesis

1) Sinanthropus 2) Cro-Magnons 3) Australopithecus 4) Pithecanthropus

3. The similarity between humans and mammals indicates

1) about their relationship and general structural plan 2) the same number of chromosomes 3) their convergent similarity 4) their origin from different ancestors

4. The presence of an outgrowth of the caecum - the appendix - is one of the evidence

1) the complexity of the human structure compared to animals

2) its participation in carbohydrate metabolism 3) its participation in protein metabolism

4) relationship between humans and mammals

5. A two-month-old human fetus and cubs of higher primates have several pairs of nipples, and an adult has only one pair, which indicates a human relationship

1) with fish 2) with amphibians 3) with reptiles 4) with mammals

6 . For humans, as well as for other mammals, live birth, feeding of young with milk is characteristic, which indicates

1) about a higher level of human development 2) about divergent evolution

3) about the development of the class Mammals in the process of evolution

4) about the relationship between humans and mammals

7 . The human skull is different from the skulls of other mammals.

1) the presence of only one movable bone - the lower jaw

2) the presence of sutures between the bones of the brain skull

3) the predominant development of the brain skull over the facial

4) the structure of bone tissue

8 . An increase in the size of the brain region of the human skull in comparison with the facial one contributed to

1) the development of thinking 2) the development of a terrestrial lifestyle

3) reduction of hairline 4) the use of animal food

9 . The relationship of man and great apes is evidenced by

1) the ability to walk upright 2) the similarity of diseases

3) they have an S-shaped spine

4) the ability to abstract thinking

10. Man and great apes

1) have abstract thinking 2) are capable of working

3) have similar blood types 4) lead a social lifestyle

11 . In the human skeleton, in contrast to the great apes, there is

enlargement of 1) the cerebral part of the skull 2) the facial part of the skull

3) cervical spine 4) caudal spine

12. In humans, due to upright posture

1) the arch of the foot has formed 2) the claws have turned into nails 3) the phalanges of the fingers have grown together 4) the thumb is opposed to the rest

13. Racial differences in people formed under the influence of factors

1) social 2) anthropogenic 3) geographic 4) limiting

14. All races of man are united in one species, which indicates their

1) a single level of physical development 2) genetic unity

5) a single social level 4) the ability to a terrestrial way of life

15. What was the significance of the acquisition of dark skin color by people of the Negroid race?

1) increased metabolism 2) adaptation to life in a marine climate

3)UV protection

6) improve the respiratory function of the skin

16 . The driving forces of anthropogenesis should not be attributed

1) struggle for existence 2) social way of life

3) hereditary variability 4) modification variability

17. Which of the following signs manifests itself in a person as an atavism?

1) elongated tail section 2) body segmentation into sections

3) differentiation of the dental system 4) five-fingered type of limb

18 . Labor activity, speech, thinking, which played an important role in the development of human ancestors, are referred to as evolutionary factors.

1) biological 2) social 3) anthropogenic 4) abiotic

19. Under the influence of biological factors of evolution, people have formed

1) speech and will 2) thinking and emotions 3) work and society

4) phenotypic traits

20. The development on the body of individuals of a large number of nipples in the mammary glands is an example

1) aromorphosis 2) regeneration 3) atavism 4) idioadaptation

21. The appearance in human ancestors of the S-shaped spine, the chin protrusion occurred under the influence of factors

1) biological 2) geographical 3) abiotic 4) anthropogenic

22. The action of only biological factors of evolution cannot explain the formation in humans of 1) arch of the foot 2) S-shaped spine 3) wisdom teeth 4) social lifestyle

23. The action of only biological factors of evolution cannot explain the appearance in humans

1) convolutions in the forebrain 2) consciousness 3) high arch of the foot

4) S-shaped spine

24 . Humans are classified as mammals becausehim

1) internal fertilization 2) pulmonary respiration

3) four-chambered heart 4) there is a diaphragm, sweat and mammary glands

25. Man in the system of the organic world

1) is a special detachment of the class of mammals

2) stands out in a special kingdom, including the most highly organized living beings

3) represents a special species that is included in the order of primates, the class of mammals, the animal kingdom

4) is an integral part of human society and is not related to the system of the organic world

26. Which of the following characteristics of a person is classified as atavism?

1) the birth of a person with an elongated tail

2) division of the body into sections

3) differentiation of teeth 4) the presence of the chest and abdominal cavities of the body

27. The presence of a tail in a human embryo at an early stage of development indicates 1) emerging mutations 2) manifestation of atavism

3) violation of the development of the fetus in the body 4) the origin of man from animals

28 . Under the influence of biological and social factors, the evolution of ancestors took place

1) birds 2) humans 3) mammals 4) reptiles

29 . The biological factor that ensures the development of thinking and labor activity of a person at an early stage of evolution is considered

1) progressive development of the brain 2) care for offspring

3) the appearance of a four-chambered heart 4) increased pulmonary respiration

30. In the early stages of human evolution, under the control of biological factors, the formation of

1) features of its structure and life 2) articulate speech

3) labor activity 4) thinking, developed consciousness

31 . In the process of evolution in humans, under the influence of biological factors, the formation of

1) the need for labor activity of a developed consciousness

3)speech 4)arch foot

32 . Labor activity, thinking, speech, which played an important role in the development of human ancestors, are among the factors of evolution.

social2) biological 3) anthropogenic 4) biotic

33 . The social factors of evolution have played a decisive role in the formation of human

1) flattened chest 2) upright posture

3) articulate speech 4) S-curves of the spine

34 . Bipedalism in human ancestors contributed

1) release of the hand 2) appearance of speech

3) development of a multichambered heart 4) increased metabolism

35 . What part of the human upper limb has changed most dramatically in the course of its evolution? 1) shoulder 2) forearm 3) hand 4) shoulder blade

36 . Man, like apes, has
1) 4 blood groups 2) arched foot

3) brain volume 1200-1450 cm 3 4) S-shaped spine

37. Man, unlike mammals

1) has excitability 2) has a cerebral cortex

3) thinks abstractly 4) has irritability

38. Unlike the great apes, humans

1) there is a Rh factor 2) rational activity has appeared

3) there is a four-chambered heart 4) abstract thinking is developed

39. In the human brain, unlike other mammals
feeding, centers appear in the process of evolution

1) speech 2) smell and taste 3) hearing and vision 4) movement coordination

40 . The formation of human races went in the direction of adaptation to

1) the use of various foods 2) terrestrial lifestyle

1) life in various natural conditions

2) immunity to various diseases

41. The unity, the kinship of the human races testifies

1) their adaptability to life in different climatic conditions

2) the same set of chromosomes, the similarity of their structure

3) their resettlement around the globe

4) their ability to transform the environment

42. All types of human activity are classified as factors

1) abiotic 2) biotic 3) anthropogenic 4) periodic

43 . Social factors began to play a leading role in anthropogenesis starting from:

1) Pithecanthropus 2) Sinanthropus 3) Neanderthals 4) Cro-Magnons

44. In the era of the great glaciation lived:

1) Cro-Magnons 2) Neanderthals 3) Sinanthropes 4) all of the above

45 . A skilled person refers to:

1) ancient people 2) ancient people 3) ape people 4) new people

46 . Homo sapiens include:

1) Australopithecus 2) Pithecanthropus 3) Sinanthropus 4) none of the above

47. The oldest people are:

1) Cro-Magnon 2) Australopithecus 3) Pithecanthropus 4) Neanderthal

48 . Modern people include:

1) Cro-Magnon 2) Australopithecus 3) Pithecanthropus 4) Neanderthal

49 . Walking upright with support on hands was typical for:

1) Australopithecus 2) Pithecanthropus 3) Sinanthropus 4) Neanderthal

50 . The distant ancestors of primates are:

1) insectivores 2) rodents 3) oviparous 4) bats

51 . The Neanderthal was able to: 1) hunt with a bow 2) speak well 3) produce bronze 4) maintain a fire

IN 1 . Set the sequence of stages of human evolution:

A) Australopithecus B) ancient people C) Dryopithecus D) new people

D) ancient people E) a skilled person

AT 2 . Select the rudiments found in humans:

1) coccyx 2) tail 3) appendix 4) thick body hair

5) multiple nipples 6) third eyelid

AT 3 . Establish a sequence reflecting the systematic position of the speciesHomo sapiens

A) class mammals B) phylum chordates C) species Homo sapiens D) order primates E) subclass placentals E) family people

AT 4 . Indicate the correct sequence of human evolution:

A) Neoanthropist B) Archanthrope C) Austalopithecus D) Paleoanthropist

AT 5 . Man, unlike the higher apes,

A) has abstract thinking
B) has a second signal system

B) has a cerebral cortex

D) creates an artificial habitat

D) is characterized by behavior based on unconditioned reflexes

E) adapts to new living conditions by developing conditioned reflexes

C 1. What evidence is known for the origin of man from animals?

С 2. What social factors are the driving forces of anthropogenesis?

Training tests on the topic "Human Evolution"

1. In the human brain, unlike the brain of mammals, there are centers

1) speech 2) smell 3) hearing 4) movement coordination

2 . Man belongs to the class of mammals because he has

1) breathing is done with the help of the lungs

2) blood flows through two circles of blood circulation

3) the forebrain includes two hemispheres

4) the development of the embryo occurs in the uterus

3 . The transition of human ancestors to upright posture contributed to

1) release of hands 2) the appearance of conditioned reflexes

3) development of a four-chambered heart 4) increased metabolism

4. How does the human skull differ from the skull of the great ape?

1) the presence of the facial and brain sections

2) a large volume of the brain

3) the location of the eye sockets and superciliary arches

4) the way of connecting the parietal and temporal bones

5. In humans, unlike mammals, developed

1) abstract thinking 2) conditioned reflexes

3) different types of inhibition 4) large hemispheres of the brain

6 . Who are considered ancient people?

1) Neanderthal 2) Pithecanthropus 3) Sinanthropus 4) Cro-Magnon

7 . What are the similarities between Homo habilis and Australopithecus?

1) brain volume 1200 cm 3 2) speech is developed

3) upright posture 4) the ability to make tools

8 . What underlies racial differences?

1) mental abilities 2) social opportunities

3) biological hereditary differences

4) the level of evolutionary development

9 . What are the similarities between humans and apes?

1) arched foot 2) abstract thinking is developed

3) there is no hairline on the face 4) 4 bends of the spine

10. What is the difference between ancient people and ancient people?

1) used fire 2) made tools

3) upright posture 4) speech in the form of babbling

eleven . Which of the signs of a person refers to the rudiments?

1) muscles that move the auricle 2) tail

3) thick body hair 4) strongly developed fangs

12 . Signs of what race are a high and long nose, skin with a small amount of melanin, thin lips, well-developed facial hair in men?

1) Australoid 2) Caucasoid 3) Mongoloid 4) Negroid

13 . What is NOT considered a human rudiment?

1) the rest of the third century 2) appendix

3) multiple nipples 4) "wisdom" teeth

14 . What is NOT considered a human atavism?

1) appendix 2) tail 3) polynipple 4) facial hair

15. In humans, the front limbs are of a grasping type (the first finger is opposed to the rest), like everyone else

1) chordates 2) mammals 3) placental 4) primates

16 . Which of the signs of a person refers to atavism?

1) appendix 2) tail 3) wisdom teeth 4) third eyelid

17 . Manufactured the first primitive tools

1) Australopithecus 2) Skillful man 3) Neanderthal 4) Cro-Magnon

18 . The first representatives of the species Homo sapiens

1) Dryopithecines 2) Australopithecus 3) Neanderthals 4) Cro-Magnons

19 . Man as a biological species arose as a result of:

1) social evolution 2) evolution of the organic world

3) development of the ability to work 4) the emergence of rational activity

IN 1 . Set the sequence that reflects the systematic position of the species Homo sapiens in the classification of animals, starting with the smallest category:

A) class Mammals B) family People C) order Primates

D) type Chordates E) species Homo sapiens E) genus Man

AT 2 . In humans, the rudiments include:

1) third eyelid 2) thick body hair 3) polynipple

4) coccyx 5) appendix 6) tail

Thank you, have not yet expressed ..

(an excerpt from the book "The Dialectical Principles of Anthropoevolution")

The problem of transition to bipedalism is not currently understood, as it should be, even in terms of understanding what the bipedalism complex includes. “Upright walking, bipedal locomotion, bipedia are all synonyms…”, is boldly asserted in one fairly academic (judging by the fact that the author is an associate professor at Moscow State University) recently published (Bakholdina V.Yu., 2004, p.143). In fact, a whole complex of phenomena is hidden under the generalizing concept of “upright walking of a person”. The “intrigue” lies in the fact that none of these phenomena require any explanation within the framework of the theory of anthropogenesis. The need for such a phenomenological separation is caused by the fact that individually these phenomena are often found in nature, the specifics of the human way of movement in space is a dynamic complex, which has a short form of expression in Russian, namely “upright walking”. It is no secret that some hypotheses about the origin of upright walking are based simply on a confusion of concepts. These three aspects are:
— stable orthogradity;
- dynamic bipedia;
- vertical locomotion;
We know how hard it is for animals to stand even for a short time and biped. A four-legged animal, thanks to the efforts of trainers, is able to stand on two limbs, can take several steps, but there is no need to talk about stable orthogradeness and locomotion on two limbs. observed in nature individual elements of upright walking among mammals, namely the upright stance, dynamic bipedia, and vertical locomotion. For example, surricats are able to stand for the purpose of orientation, but they move on four limbs, i.e. it is a stable orthogradity without locomotion. In general, many rodents (ground squirrels, marmots, rats, mice, etc.), monkeys, bears, i.e., are capable of stable orthogradeness. it is not only not exclusive, but also not rare in nature. Dynamic bipedia was characteristic of many types of reptiles in the era of dinosaurs. In modern biota, it is found in rare species of reptiles (in some lizards), but is a characteristic feature of birds. Among mammals, dynamic bipedia is characteristic of kangaroos, which move by jumping using their hind limbs, but they do not have a vertical stance on their hind legs; at rest, they rely on three points, including a powerful tail, while their hind legs are in contact with the ground at knee level. joint. It is a dynamic bipedia without stable orthogradeness, yet very different from the human step-by-step mode of locomotion. In both cases, this is not at all what a person is capable of, our mode of transportation is unique in its complexity.
The natural exclusivity of the dynamics of the human body lies not only in the combination of the three elements of bipedalism (stable orthogradeness, dynamic bipedia and vertical locomotion), which are found only separately in the animal world. Any other mammal (monkey, bear, kangaroo, etc.), moving on two limbs, does so with a fairly pronounced forward inclination. As for people, for them a strict vertical is an identifying feature. In a certain sense, this is an external species criterion, given the importance attached to the vertical posture by the collective unconscious. Real a person must walk vertically - and the artist V. Serov highlights the figure of Tsar Peter with vertical locomotion, bending down his retinue. The main man of all peoples not only walks, stands, but also sits upright. The requirement to observe the vertical is one of the main ones in the system of pedagogy (stand straight! Sit straight! Do not bend when walking! .. etc.). The requirement of strict verticality is imposed on soldiers, but never on prisoners. The requirement of abandoning the vertical, shown to prisoners of war, is often supplemented by shooting over their heads.
Among terrestrial mammals, we cannot name species for which the verticality of locomotion is of such great importance. Only one is known nautical a taxon whose representatives are able to move strictly vertically through the water, when verticality matters, these are dolphins. Of course, this is not a bipedia, and not a stable orthogradity, but it is vertical locomotion and it is an example of how careful one must be when voicing the terminology associated with the bipedal complex, not allowing incorrect expressions, when, for example, they write about the problem of “the origin of vertical bipedia”, “bipedal locomotion”, “vertical locomotion”, and then and simply "two-legged".
Summing up, it must be said that the human exclusivity of behavior in space is actually a naturally determined complex of upright walking, which includes three elements: 1. stable orthogradeness; 2.dynamic bipedia; 3. vertical locomotion. At the same time, not a single element, taken separately, can be considered a purely human sign.
F. Engels proclaimed "upright gait" "a decisive step in the transition from monkey to man" (Engels, 1989, p. 505), but did not explain why the monkeys switched to upright walking.
There is no shortage of hypotheses about the origin of bipedalism, sometimes so fantastic that one can only be surprised that they came out of academic circles. “Despite the fact that only very few topics related to the study of anthropogenesis caused as much discussion as the origin of bipedalism, writes L. Vishnyatsky, this event remains a mystery, being a truly “damned question” of paleoanthropology” (Vishnyatsky, 2005 , p.113). The general refrain of all reconstructions is approximately the following: “About ... millions of years ago, some groups of great apes descended from trees to the ground, moved from the forest to the savannah ...”, only the date of the proposed resettlement changes, and with it the natural disaster that allegedly had the place to be at the very moment when the unknown ape-like ancestors of man decided to get down from the trees. There was a time when they assured that monkeys crossed into the savannas seven hundred thousand years ago, then one and a half million years, then two and a half, then three and a half, now four million, and if you believe the finds of French archaeologists Senyu and Brunet on Lake Chad, made at the beginning of the 21st century, 6-7 million years ago. Each time, some new “aridization of the climate” pops up. As archaeologist G. Matyushin caustically writes, “the main thing in separating a person from the animal world, according to some researchers, is “cooling, an increase in aridity and a decrease in forest cover in the habitats of anthropoid apes ...” (Matyushin, 1982, p. 72).
The paleoclimatic interpretations cited as an explanation for the change in the environment by the "ancient anthropoids" are unsatisfactory for the following reason. Despite climate change, during the entire time of the existence of great apes on Earth, the rainforest zone remained unchanged. Moreover, it was localized exactly where it is now - along the equator. The rainforest zone increased at times, at times decreased, but never completely disappeared and always remained vast enough so that the monkeys could survive until better times. The urgent need to radically change the landscape of the anthropoids never arose. It remains to admit the completely anti-evolutionary idea that they did it because they "wanted to."
In general, the question of the "resettlement" of monkeys from the forest to the savannah should be divided in two. The first question is why did the anthropoids "want" this? Question two: did they have the physical ability to carry out their plans? There are no real explanations for this historical "movement". M.A. Deryagina in the book "Evolutionary Anthropology: Biological and Cultural Aspects", in the section "Hypotheses of the Origin of Bipedia" summarized this exotic, but extremely little heuristic hypothesis (Deryagina, 1989). Below I will give it, accompanied by my objections and additions to what has been invented since 1989.
The English anthropologist R. Foley put forward the idea of ​​"feeding under the branches." Such an output is associated with a change in the food base, which requires special adaptations. In the African savannah, many species of animals feed under the branches, from the small impala antelope to the giraffe and elephant. All of them are armed with special devices for this: a trunk, a long neck, powerful jaw muscles, hard, dense, callused lips. A person has nothing of the kind, so he could not wedge himself into this ecological niche. The food that can be obtained by feeding under the branches from below is energetically poor. These are leaves, branches and carrion (to collect which, by the way, upright walking is useless). Animals are forced to consume it in huge quantities, chewing almost without interruption. What "craniofacial complex" could have evolved from this? Huge, powerful chewing jaws that make up most of the skull, but not the brain. The second consequence would be the development of a belly capable of containing a huge amount of roughage. Who could be the result of a million, say, years of such a lifestyle? Gorilla. She did. This is an anthropoid that feeds under the branches, living in the lower tier of the rainforest.
E.Taylor is the author of the concept of the origin of the bipedia, based on the "energy effect". This conclusion is based on observations of driven hunting by Bushmen capable of driving a zebra. The first objection is that it is now almost certain that the first upright hominids could have been anything: foragers, cannibals, necrophages, bone and shell crackers, but not effective hunters; they simply did not have the opportunity to occupy such a niche. Further, the Bushmen have their own methods of choosing victims. It has long been described that their hunting is a culling of sick and weak animals; At the same time, the following fact must also be taken into account. All animals eaten are, as a rule, sprinters. Those who eat are stayers. The antelope runs much faster than a man, but not for long, after one kilometer of fast running, it collapses. Another reason that facilitates driven hunting is the peculiarities of animal life in a natural format. Each animal has its own feeding territory, the boundaries of which the animal cannot cross, an instinctive taboo operates. Bushmen hunters catch up with the antelope, because they know: it will run in a circle, and they will "cut" along the radius. Only one thing is important to them: to be in sight of the antelope, so that it continues to run its mortal circle.
The next reason for the transition to bipedia, which experts call, is the fight against insolation and overheating. It is estimated that an upright person receives one third less sunlight than an animal of the same size. But here a counter question arises: why was it necessary to get down from the trees, in the shade of which the problem of excessive insolation does not exist? On the contrary, it would be better to climb into the forest further away. Chimpanzees live in the second tier of the rainforest, where even the soil is available, almost without being exposed to direct sunlight.
The next hypothesis seems to be the most intelligible: as if the monkeys stood on two legs for the sake of orientation in the savannah. It is based on observations of the habits of mongooses, marmots, surricats, ground squirrels, and other animals that, living in open spaces, take a vertical stance for the purpose of orientation. However, this hypothesis can only explain the origin of stable orthogradeness, but not bipedal locomotion. None of the animals that take the posture of the column for the purpose of orientation ever runs on two legs. These are different physiological acts. Moreover: the opposite. On the run, orientation to the cardinal points is very difficult. This hypothesis is an example of "phenomenological" (not in the Husserlian, but in the encyclopedic sense) confusion, when, thinking that they are explaining the origin of bipedalism, they are actually trying to explain the vertical stance.
K. Lovejoy proceeded from the so-called. breeding strategies. It is known that some animals give birth to many children, the care of which is very relative. Only the strongest survive. Others give birth little and rarely, but devote themselves entirely to the care of children and selflessly protect them. The latter is characteristic of just the highest mammals, for example, the great apes. The female chimpanzee gives birth once every three years and stays in touch with her children throughout her life. K. Lovejoy decided that the reason for the transition of monkeys to bipedal locomotion was the change in their breeding strategy. They decided to have more babies. The question arises: what prevented the monkeys from giving birth more often on trees, or rather, on the second tier of the tropical forest, where there is even soil? Why descend to a land infested with predators? Sitting at the top, the monkeys are not easy prey for very few predators. On the ground, they are easy prey for anyone who has strong fangs and wants to eat. “K.O. Lovejoy believes,” M. Deryagina assures, “that on earth it is easier to take care of several cubs” (Deryagina, 1989, p. 9). D. Johanson, who considers Lovejoy's idea "beautiful", regrets only one thing: it lacks a "trigger" (Johanson, Eady, 1984, p. 242). The unsubstantiated trigger mechanism is a common flaw in all hypotheses of the transition to upright posture. Johanson flattered Lovejoy by saying that this was the only flaw in his hypothesis. The transition to a new breeding strategy associated with annual births (more often it is simply impossible for anthropoids) has nothing to do with bipedia. There is no correlation between these two phenomena. On trees, many mammals give birth not once every three years, like chimpanzees, but annually, but because of this they do not go over to terrestrial existence. On earth, many mammals give birth annually and even more often, but do not begin to walk on two legs from this.
From this it follows that upright posture was necessary for the monkeys in order to free their hands specifically for children. Experience has shown that when people have a choice, they choose a different breeding strategy than Lovejoy chose for us. People do not strive to be fruitful, they prefer to give birth less often and better educate. I emphasize: when there is a choice. Lovejoy is about choice. Some of our ancestors allegedly abandoned the traditional breeding strategy and chose a different one. In order to become human, they needed to give birth more often and care less. But historical experience shows that people - they are the ones - do not tend to do this. Further, no land animal, including humans and savannah monkeys, carries children in their arms. On earth, this is the most uneconomical, energy-intensive and dangerous method of transportation for mother and child. From time immemorial, people have adapted anything, just not to carry children in their arms. Not a single wandering primitive tribe recorded such a way of carrying children as the “Madonna pose”. Holding in their arms, mothers feed babies, and for transportation they adapt anything, especially their backs. In this case, the principle triumphs: anything, if only not hands. Legs - even they - are preferable. The natives of the Asian North, for example, sewed special boots with wide tops, in which children were placed and thus transported. The fact is that for people who get food for themselves and their children with their hands, occupying hands for children is an unaffordable luxury.
Savannah monkeys also carry babies on their backs. Only chimpanzees and other tree monkeys carry babies in their arms, because if they jumped in the dense forest among the branches with babies sitting on their backs, they would risk injuring the babies. This is a forced method, never used in terrestrial conditions. Apparently Lovejoy didn't think of that when he "moved" the monkeys from the trees to the ground so they could carry babies. Now, if he wrote about the opposite: about the transition from a terrestrial lifestyle to an arboreal one, then there would be something to talk about. The method of transporting children in their arms is an exclusive tree monkey, not used by anyone else on Earth. In essence, Lovejoy's hypothesis is the opposite of what it was invented for. It explains not the transition of tree monkeys to walking upright on the ground, but the transition of degrading hominids to an arboreal way of life. However, in this capacity, this concept is redundant, because the transition of degrading hominids to an arboreal way of life is easily explained even without a “reproduction strategy”. In the second tier of the rainforest, it is safer for lightly armed creatures to live, because there are fewer large predators.
In conclusion of the review of hypotheses, trying to explain the transition to upright posture, I will give the opinion of J. Lindblad on the meaning of this key event of the simial concept of anthropogenesis:
“Think about it, how did an ape have to evolve to survive the transformation from a peaceful forest dweller, mostly frugivorous primate, to a carnivorous predator living in an environment as dramatically different from the previous one as the sun-scorched savannah? For the sake of common sense, she should have retained her protective hair coat, and in order to pursue the swift-footed inhabitants of the savannah, she should have remained true to the four-legged running style. The limbs should have been equal or almost equal in length; instead, the extremely long arms and short legs of the forest monkey have undergone the exact opposite change, and we hairless upright primates have long legs and short arms. Killing prey required long sharp fangs, like those of a leopard, and not the relatively small reduced stumps that hominids acquired. A successful mutation product would rather be a baboon-like creature with huge teeth and a longer nose (instead of an increasingly flat muzzle), thick hair, almost equal limbs, and a more horizontal posture” (Linblad, 1991, p. 69 ).
If we exclude the passage about the nose, which in a baboon is not large in itself, it is simply pushed far forward along with the lower part of the muzzle, providing the “wolf grip” necessary for the savannah monkeys to fight against numerous large predators of open spaces (flat-faced great apes in the savannah do not had the opportunity to survive also for this reason), then Lindblad is certainly right, in any case, the authors of the hypotheses of the origin of bipedality have no counterarguments.
There is another aspect of the problem which, to my knowledge, was first detailed in a book published in 2005. This is the question of whether it was physically possible for anthropoids to transition to sustained bipedal locomotion. The transition of the alleged simian ancestors to bipedal locomotion was impossible for anatomical and physiological reasons. The fact is that all monkeys, including fossils, are flat-footed. The human foot is a complex spring mechanism with 28 special elements. The arch of the foot is the spring spring that made upright walking possible. An arched foot can turn into a flat one, but the reverse process is impossible. Walking flat feet is not eliminated, but aggravated. The abuse of flat-footed people by walking without special shoes leads to the development of bone pathology. There were no orthopedists in the primeval forest. Question: how did flat-footed monkeys, having switched to walking on the ground on two legs, acquire not arthrosis, but a spring arch of the foot, if this is impossible in principle? (Ten, 2005, p.66).