The structure of the human skeleton and bones, as well as their purpose, is studied by the science of osteology. Knowledge of the basic concepts of this science is a mandatory requirement for a personal trainer, not to mention the fact that this knowledge must be systematically deepened in the process of work. In this article we will consider the structure and functions of the human skeleton, that is, we will touch on the basic theoretical minimum that literally every personal trainer must master.

And according to the old tradition, as always, we’ll start with a short excursion about what role the skeleton plays in the human body. The structure of the human body, which we talked about in the corresponding article, forms, among other things, the musculoskeletal system. This is a functional set of skeletal bones, their connections and muscles, which, through nervous regulation, carry out movement in space, maintaining postures, facial expressions and other motor activities.

Now that we know that the human musculoskeletal system forms the skeleton, muscles and nervous system, we can proceed directly to studying the topic indicated in the title of the article. Since the human skeleton is a kind of supporting structure for attaching various tissues, organs and muscles, this topic can rightfully be considered the foundation in the study of the entire human body.

Structure of the human skeleton

Human skeleton- a functionally structured set of bones in the human body, which is part of its musculoskeletal system. This is a kind of frame on which tissues, muscles are attached, and in which internal organs are located, for which it also acts as protection. The skeleton consists of 206 bones, most of which are combined into joints and ligaments.

Human skeleton, front view: 1 - lower jaw; 2 - upper jaw; 3 - zygomatic bone; 4 - ethmoid bone; 5 - sphenoid bone; c - temporal bone; 7- lacrimal bone; 8 - parietal bone; 9 - frontal bone; 10 - eye socket; 11 - nasal bone; 12 - pear-shaped hole; 13 - anterior longitudinal ligament; 14 - interclavicular ligament; 15 - anterior sternoclavicular ligament; 16 - coracoclavicular ligament; 17 - acromioclavicular ligament; 18 - coracoacromial ligament; 19 - coracohumeral ligament; 20 - costoclavicular ligament; 21 - radiate sternocostal ligaments; 22 - external intercostal membrane; 23 - costoxiphoid ligament; 24 - ulnar collateral ligament; 25 - radial roundabout (lateral) ligament; 26 - annular ligament of the radius; 27 - iliopsoas ligament; 28 - ventral (abdominal) sacroiliac ligaments; 29 - inguinal ligament; 30 - sacrospinous ligament; 31 - interosseous membrane of the forearm; 32 - dorsal intercarpal ligaments; 33 - dorsal metacarpal ligaments; 34 - roundabout (lateral) ligaments; 35 - radial roundabout (lateral) ligament of the wrist; 36 - pubofemoral ligament; 37 - iliofemoral ligament; 38 - obturator membrane; 39 - superior pubic ligament; 40 - arcuate ligament of the pubis; 41 - fibular roundabout (lateral) ligament; 42 - patellar ligament; 43 - tibial roundabout (lateral) ligament; 44 - interosseous membrane of the leg; 45 - anterior tibiofibular ligament; 46 - bifurcated ligament; 47 - deep transverse metatarsal ligament; 48 - roundabout (lateral) ligaments; 49 - dorsal metatarsal ligaments; 50 - dorsal metatarsal ligaments; 51 - medial (deltoid) ligament; 52 - scaphoid bone; 53 - calcaneus; 54 - toe bones; 55 - metatarsal bones; 56 - sphenoid bones; 57 - cuboid bone; 58 - talus; 59 - tibia; 60 - fibula; 61 - patella; 62 - femur; 63 - ischium; 64 - pubic bone; 65 - sacrum; 66 - ilium; 67 - lumbar vertebrae; 68 - pisiform bone; 69 - trihedral bone; 70 - capitate bone; 71 - hooked bone; 72 - metacarpal bones; 7 3-bones of fingers; 74 - trapezoid bone; 75 - trapezoid bone; 76 - navicular bone; 77 - lunate bone; 78 - ulna; 79 - radius; 80 - ribs; 81 - thoracic vertebrae; 82 - sternum; 83 - shoulder blade; 84 - humerus; 85 - collarbone; 86 - cervical vertebrae.

Human skeleton, rear view: 1 - lower jaw; 2 - upper jaw; 3 - lateral ligament; 4 - zygomatic bone; 5 - temporal bone; 6 - sphenoid bone; 7 - frontal bone; 8 - parietal bone; 9- occipital bone; 10 - awl-mandibular ligament; 11-nuchal ligament; 12 - cervical vertebrae; 13 - collarbone; 14 - supraspinous ligament; 15 - blade; 16 - humerus; 17 - ribs; 18 - lumbar vertebrae; 19 - sacrum; 20 - ilium; 21 - pubic bone; 22- coccyx; 23 - ischium; 24 - ulna; 25 - radius; 26 - lunate bone; 27 - scaphoid bone; 28 - trapezium bone; 29 - trapezoid bone; 30 - metacarpal bones; 31 - bones of the fingers; 32 - capitate bone; 33 - hamate bone; 34 - triangular bone; 35 - pisiform bone; 36 - femur; 37 - patella; 38 - fibula; 39 - tibia; 40 - talus; 41 - calcaneus; 42 - scaphoid bone; 43 - sphenoid bones; 44 - metatarsal bones; 45 - toe bones; 46 - posterior tibiofibular ligament; 47 - medial deltoid ligament; 48 - posterior talofibular ligament; 49 - calcaneofibular ligament; 50 - dorsal tarsal ligaments; 51 - interosseous membrane of the leg; 52 - posterior ligament of the head of the fibula; 53 - fibular roundabout (lateral) ligament; 54 - tibial roundabout (lateral) ligament; 55 - oblique popliteal ligament; 56 - sacrotuberous ligament; 57 - flexor retinaculum; 58 - roundabout (lateral) ligaments; 59 - deep transverse metacarpal ligament; 60 - pea-hooked ligament; 61 - radiate ligament of the wrist; 62-ulnar roundabout (lateral) ligament of the wrist; 63 - ischiofemoral ligament; 64 - superficial dorsal sacrococcygeal ligament; 65 - dorsal sacroiliac ligaments; 66 - ulnar roundabout (lateral) ligament; 67-radial roundabout (lateral) ligament; 68 - iliopsoas ligament; 69 - costotransverse ligaments; 70 - intertransverse ligaments; 71 - coracohumeral ligament; 72 - acromioclavicular ligament; 73 - coracoclavicular ligament.

As mentioned above, the human skeleton consists of about 206 bones, of which 34 are unpaired, the rest are paired. 23 bones make up the skull, 26 - the spinal column, 25 - the ribs and sternum, 64 - the skeleton of the upper limbs, 62 - the skeleton of the lower limbs. Skeletal bones are formed from bone and cartilage tissue, which are classified as connective tissues. Bones, in turn, consist of cells and intercellular substance.

The human skeleton is designed in such a way that its bones are usually divided into two groups: the axial skeleton and the accessory skeleton. The first includes bones located in the center and forming the basis of the body, these are the bones of the head, neck, spine, ribs and sternum. The second includes the collarbones, shoulder blades, bones of the upper, lower extremities and pelvis.

Central skeleton (axial):

• The skull is the basis of the human head. It houses the brain, organs of vision, hearing and smell. The skull has two sections: the brain and the facial.
• The rib cage is the bony base of the chest and the location for the internal organs. Consists of 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and sternum.
• The spinal column (spine) is the main axis of the body and the support of the entire skeleton. The spinal cord runs inside the spinal canal. The spine has the following sections: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal.

Secondary skeleton (accessory):

• Belt of the upper limbs - due to it, the upper limbs are attached to the skeleton. Consists of paired shoulder blades and clavicles. The upper limbs are adapted to perform labor activities. The limb (arm) consists of three sections: the shoulder, forearm and hand.
• Lower limb girdle – provides attachment of the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. It houses the organs of the digestive, urinary and reproductive systems. The limb (leg) also consists of three sections: thigh, lower leg and foot. They are adapted to support and move the body in space.

Functions of the human skeleton

The functions of the human skeleton are usually divided into mechanical and biological.

Mechanical functions include:

• Support – the formation of a rigid osteochondral frame of the body to which muscles and internal organs are attached.
• Movement - the presence of movable joints between the bones allows the body to move with the help of muscles.
• Protection of internal organs - the chest, skull, spinal column and more, serve as protection for the organs located in them.
• Shock-absorbing – the arch of the foot, as well as the cartilage layers at the joints of the bones, help reduce vibrations and shocks when moving.

Biological functions include:

• Hematopoietic – the formation of new blood cells occurs in the bone marrow.
• Metabolic - bones are the storage site for a significant portion of the body's calcium and phosphorus.

Sexual features of the skeleton structure

The skeletons of both sexes are mostly similar and do not have radical differences. These differences include only minor changes in the shape or size of specific bones. The most obvious features of the human skeleton are as follows. In men, the bones of the limbs tend to be longer and thicker, and the muscle attachment points tend to be more lumpy. Women have a wider pelvis, and also a narrower chest.

Types of bone tissue

Bone- active living tissue consisting of compact and spongy substance. The first looks like dense bone tissue, which is characterized by the arrangement of mineral components and cells in the form of a Haversian system (the structural unit of bone). It includes bone cells, nerves, blood and lymph vessels. More than 80% of bone tissue has the form of the Haversian system. The compact substance is located in the outer layer of the bone.

Bone structure: 1- bone head; 2- pineal gland; 3- spongy substance; 4- central bone marrow cavity; 5- blood vessels; 6- bone marrow; 7- spongy substance; 8- compact substance; 9- diaphysis; 10- osteon

Spongy substance does not have a Haversian system and makes up 20% of the bone mass of the skeleton. The spongy substance is very porous, with branched septa that form a lattice structure. This spongy structure of bone tissue allows for the storage of bone marrow and fat storage and at the same time ensures sufficient bone strength. The relative content of dense and spongy matter varies in different bones.

Bone development

Bone growth is an increase in bone size due to an increase in bone cells. The bone can increase in thickness or grow in the longitudinal direction, which directly affects the human skeleton as a whole. Longitudinal growth occurs in the area of ​​the epiphyseal plate (the cartilaginous area at the end of a long bone) initially as a process of replacing cartilage tissue with bone tissue. Although bone tissue is one of the most durable tissues in our body, it is important to recognize that bone growth is a very dynamic and metabolically active tissue process that occurs throughout a person's life. A distinctive feature of bone tissue is its high content of minerals, primarily calcium and phosphates (which give bone strength), as well as organic components (which provide bone elasticity). Bone tissue has unique opportunities for growth and self-healing. The structural features of the skeleton also mean that, through a process called bone remodeling, the bone can adapt to the mechanical loads to which it is subjected.

Bone growth: 1- cartilage; 2- formation of bone tissue in the diaphysis; 3- growth plate; 4- formation of bone tissue in the epiphysis; 5- blood vessels and nerves

I- fruit;II- newborn;III- child;IV- young man

Restructuring of bone tissue– the ability to modify bone shape, size and structure in response to external influences. This is a physiological process that includes the resorption (resorption) of bone tissue and its formation. Resorption is the absorption of tissue, in this case bone. Restructuring is a continuous process of destruction, replacement, maintenance and restoration of bone tissue. It is a balanced process of bone resorption and formation.

Bone tissue is formed by three types of bone cells: osteoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes. Osteoclasts are large cells that destroy bone and carry out the process of resorption. Osteoblasts are cells that form bone and new bone tissue. Osteocytes are mature osteoblasts that help regulate the process of bone tissue remodeling.

FACT. Bone density is largely dependent on regular physical activity over a long period of time, and exercise, in turn, helps prevent bone fractures by increasing bone strength.

Conclusion

This amount of information, of course, is not an absolute maximum, but rather a necessary minimum of knowledge required by a personal trainer in his professional activities. As I have said in articles about being a personal trainer, the foundation of professional development is continuous learning and improvement. Today we have laid the foundation in such a complex and voluminous topic as the structure of the human skeleton, and this article will be only the first in a thematic series. In the future, we will consider a lot more interesting and useful information regarding the structural components of the human body frame. In the meantime, you can confidently say that the structure of the human skeleton is no longer “terra incognita” for you.

“Human Structure” - Physical Education Minute. 2. FOLLOW THE RULES OF PERSONAL HYGIENE. If the heart stops, the person dies. How is the plane built on the outside? What do you think is inside? Stomach. If you are sick, consult a doctor immediately. ? who treats what? How is the house arranged? Brain. Leg. Liver. Without air, a person can only live for a short time.

“Autonomic nervous system” - Abstract Disorders of the nervous system of students due to fatigue at school. Diseases N.S. more common in students aged 12-16 years. The object of the study is students of school No. 5. Performs its functions through two systems that coordinate the work of different organs - sympathetic and parasympathetic. To study the health status of the nervous system of students of municipal educational institution "Secondary School No. 5".

“Muscle work” - Muscles of the human body. Muscles of the arm. Muscles of the head. Microscopic structure of muscles. Energy of muscle contraction. Leg muscles. Which letter represents smooth and striated muscles? Neck muscles. A-; B-. Types and properties of muscle tissue. What is indicated by the numbers 1-; 2-; 3-; 4-. Excitability Contractility Conductivity Elasticity.

“Musculoskeletal system” - Lesson 1. Musculoskeletal system: composition and functions.” Completed by biology teacher of gymnasium 22 Ketukh Aida Genrikhovna. Topic: “Musculoskeletal system.” The importance of physical exercise. Types of bones. Event “Support and Movement”. Muscles: structure and functions. Muscle work. Connection of bones. Functions of the musculoskeletal system.

“Skeleton structure” - 3 - arc. Lesson 2. Axial skeleton and limb skeleton. Skeleton of the hand. Structure of the skull (bottom view). Vertebral structure. B - cervical. Leg skeleton. 1 – vertebra 2 – ribs 3 – sternum. 4 – lateral processes. 1 – posterior processes 2 – vertebral bodies. 1 – lumbar 2 – sacral 3 – coccygeal. 2 – vertebral body.

"Biology Analyzers" - Hearing centers. With the help of hearing, you can perceive information at a considerable distance. A. We receive up to 90% of information through the visual sensory channel. There sounds are identified, analyzed, evaluated. Sources used: Analyzer: receptor, nerve pathway, cerebral cortex area. Before you is an illusion or false perception.

There are a total of 14 presentations in the topic

Page 1 of 8

The passive part of the human musculoskeletal system is a complex of bones and their connections - the skeleton. The skeleton consists of the bones of the skull, spine and rib cage (the so-called axial skeleton), as well as the bones of the upper and lower extremities (the accessory skeleton).

The skeleton has high strength and flexibility, which is ensured by the way the bones are connected to each other. The movable connection of most bones gives the skeleton the necessary flexibility and freedom of movement. In addition to fibrous and cartilaginous continuous joints (they mainly connect the bones of the skull), there are several types of less rigid bone joints in the skeleton. Each type of connection depends on the required degree of mobility and the type of load on a given part of the skeleton. Joints with limited mobility are called semi-joints or symphyses, and discontinuous (synovial) joints are called joints. The complex geometry of the articular surfaces exactly corresponds to the degree of freedom of a given connection.

Skeletal bones are involved in hematopoiesis and mineral metabolism, and bone marrow is an important part of the body's immune system. In addition, the bones that make up the skeleton serve as support for the organs and soft tissues of the body and provide protection to vital internal organs.

The human skeleton continues its formation throughout life: bones are constantly renewed and growing, corresponding to the growth of the whole organism; individual bones (for example, coccygeal or sacral), which exist separately in children, grow together into a single bone as they grow older. At the time of birth, the bones of the skeleton are not yet fully formed and many of them consist of cartilage tissue.

The fetal skull at the age of 9 months is not yet a rigid structure; the individual bones that make it up have not fused together, which should ensure relatively easy passage through the birth canal. Other distinctive features: not fully developed bones of the upper limb girdle (scapula and clavicle); most of the carpal and tarsal bones are still cartilaginous; At the time of birth, the bones of the chest are also not formed (in a newborn, the xiphoid process is cartilaginous, and the sternum is represented by separate bony points that are not fused together). The vertebrae at this age are separated by relatively thick intervertebral discs, and the vertebrae themselves are just beginning to form: the vertebral bodies and arches are not fused and are represented by bony points. Finally, the pelvic bone at this point consists only of the bone rudiments of the ischium, pubis and ilium.

The adult human skeleton consists of more than 200 bones; its weight (on average) is approximately 10 kg for men and about 7 kg for women. The internal structure of each of the bones of the skeleton is optimally adapted so that the bone can successfully perform all the numerous functions assigned to it by nature. The participation of the bones that make up the skeleton in metabolism is ensured by the blood vessels that penetrate each bone. Nerve endings penetrating the bone allow it, as well as the entire skeleton as a whole, to grow and change, adequately responding to changes in the living environment and external conditions of the organism.

The structural unit of the supporting apparatus, forming the bones of the skeleton, as well as cartilage, ligaments, fascia and tendons, isconnective tissue. A common characteristic of connective tissues with different structures is that they all consist of cells and intercellular substance, which includes fibrous structures and amorphous substance. Connective tissue performs various functions: as part of organs, trophic - the formation of the stroma of organs, nutrition of cells and tissues, transport of oxygen, carbon dioxide, as well as mechanical, protective, that is, it unites different types of tissues and protects organs from damage, viruses and microorganisms.

Connective tissue is divided into connective tissue itself and specially connective tissue with supporting (bone and cartilage tissue) and hematopoietic (lymphatic and myeloid tissue) properties.

The connective tissue itself is divided into fibrous and connective tissue with special properties, which include reticular, pigment, adipose and mucous tissue. Fibrous tissue is represented by loose, unformed connective tissue that accompanies blood vessels, ducts, nerves, separating organs from each other and from body cavities, forming the stroma of organs, as well as dense formed and unformed connective tissue, forming ligaments, tendons, aponeuroses, fascia, perineuria, fibrous membranes and elastic tissue.

Bone tissue forms the bony skeleton of the head and limbs, the axial skeleton of the body, protects organs located in the skull, thoracic and pelvic cavities, and participates in mineral metabolism. In addition, bone tissue determines the shape of the body. It consists of cells, which are osteocytes, osteoblasts and osteoclasts, and of the intercellular substance containing collagen fibers of bone and bone ground substance, where mineral salts are deposited, constituting up to 70% of the total bone mass. Thanks to this amount of salts, the bone base substance is characterized by increased strength.

Bone tissue is divided into coarse fibrous, or reticulofibrous, characteristic of embryos and young organisms, and lamellar tissue, which makes up the bones of the skeleton, which, in turn, is divided into spongy, contained in the epiphyses of bones, and compact, found in the diaphyses of tubular bones.

Cartilage tissue is formed by chondrocyte cells and intercellular substance of increased density. Cartilage performs a supporting function and is part of various parts of the skeleton. There are fibrous cartilaginous tissue, which is part of the intervertebral discs and joints of the pubic bones, hyaline, which forms the cartilage of the articular surfaces of bones, ends of the ribs, trachea, bronchi, and elastic, which forms the epiglottis and auricles.

Chapter 1

Spine and joints: structure and functions

In order to understand why our back and joints begin to bother us, we must first understand what they are. One of the main components of human existence is the ability to move. This function in our body is performed by the musculoskeletal system.

The musculoskeletal system in the human body, the movement apparatus, is represented by bones, their joints and skeletal striated muscles. It consists of an active part (muscles) and a passive part (skeletal system).

The skeletal system consists of bones that form the skeleton through joints.

The 206 bones that make up the human skeleton perform five main functions.

1. Protective: the skeletal system protects many vital organs - the heart, brain and spinal cord, etc.

Bone mass in men is greater than in women, ranging from 9 to 18% of the total body weight. For women, this figure is 8.6–15%.

2. Supportive: the skeleton provides support to soft tissues, allowing you to maintain the straight position of the body and its shape.

3. Motor: bones form levers to which muscles are attached.

4. Hematopoietic: Red bone marrow bone is responsible for the production of blood cells.

5. Participation in metabolism: bones serve as a “storage” for calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and other minerals, fat (yellow bone marrow).

In the human body, the bones of the skeleton through various types of connections (Fig. 1) constitute a common functional system.

There are three types of bone joints:

1) continuous:

Synarthrosis (characterized by great strength and low mobility);

Fibrous: syndesmoses (ligaments and membranes), sutures, gomphoses (dental alveolar impactions);

Cartilaginous: synchondrosis - intervertebral discs, connection between the first rib and the sternum;

Bone: synostoses - sacrum, coccyx, where the vertebrae grow together;

Symphysis (half-joints): symphysis pubis;

2) intermittent (joints), having the greatest mobility. The joints received this name because the connection of the bones is divided by a gap;

3) transitional. This group includes semi-joints (hemiarthrosis) - an intermediate form between continuous and discontinuous articular joints (cartilaginous joint of the pubic bones).

All joints have a similar structure (Fig. 2), each includes:

Articular surfaces are the ends of connecting bones;

Articular cartilage (it covers the articular surfaces), which reduces the friction of the surfaces against each other, facilitates sliding and acts as a shock absorber;

The joint capsule (joint capsule) surrounding each joint. It consists of dense fibrous connective tissue, the inner layer of which is lined with a thin synovial membrane;

Articular cavity - the space inside the articular capsule between the articular surfaces;

Synovial fluid filling the joint cavity. It plays the role of a lubricant, provides nutrition to articular cartilage and is produced by the synovial membrane.

Joints are divided into:

Simple - articulate two bones (humerus, hip, interphalangeal);

Complex – connects more than two bones (wrist, ankle);

Complex – with additional formations (discs or menisci) in the capsule (knee, sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular);

Combined - joints with separate articular capsules, but functioning simultaneously (temporomandibular).

Additional formations of joints (discs, menisci, labrums) play the role of shock absorbers and contribute to a more even distribution of pressure from one bone to another.

Externally, the joints are strengthened by ligaments, they:

They inhibit (limit) movement, preventing joint injury;

Direct movements;

Strengthen the joint capsule;

Thicken the joint capsule.

There are also intra-articular ligaments, for example the cruciate ligaments in the knee joint.

Joint mobility depends on factors such as:

The shape and congruence of the articular surfaces (the more the connecting surfaces correspond to each other, the less mobility);

The condition of additional joint formations (the thicker the capsule, the stronger the ligaments, the less mobility);

The condition of the surrounding muscles (if there is a spasm in the muscle surrounding the joint, its mobility decreases);

Temperature (the higher it is, the greater the mobility);

Time of day (mobility increases in the evening);

Age (mobility in children is high, in old age it decreases);

Gender (women have higher mobility).

Terms used to describe movements.

Flexion- a movement that leads to a decrease in the angle between the anterior surfaces of articulated bones.

Extension- a movement that leads to an increase in the angle between the anterior surfaces of articulated bones.

Lead– movement from the midline of the body (performed by hand or foot).

Bringing– movement of a body part towards the midline of the body.

Rotation– movement of a body part without changing the angle of the articulating bones (for example, rotating the forearm inward or outward).

The articular surfaces of the bones are not the same. Their shape depends on what movements are performed in a given joint (Fig. 3).

Movements in joints, depending on their shape, are classified as follows.

Movements in one plane (uniaxial joints):

Helical (humeral-ulnar);

Block-shaped (ankle, interphalangeal);

Cylindrical (between the I and II vertebrae, radioulnar joints).

Movement in two planes (biaxial joints):

Condylar (knee, metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints);

Saddle (carpometacarpal joint of the thumb);

Elliptical (wrist).

Movement in three planes (triaxial joints):

Globular (shoulder);

Cup-shaped (hip);

Flat (intervertebral).

The human skeleton (Fig. 4) is divided into axial and accessory. The axial, more complex skeleton includes the spinal column, chest and skull, and the accessory skeleton includes the bones of the upper and lower extremities.

Scull consists of 23 bones connected to each other by synantroses - cranial sutures. The lower jaw is connected to the skull using two joints.

Skeleton of the torso consists of the spinal column and thorax.

Spinal column(Fig. 5, 9) is represented by 32–34 vertebrae (Fig. 6), which, as independent individual bones, are present only in the skeleton of newborns. In the spinal column of an adult there are 7 cervical, 12 thoracic (Fig. 7), 5 lumbar (Fig. 8), 5 sacral vertebrae fused into a single bone (sacrum), and 3–5 coccygeal vertebrae fused into the coccyx.

The vertebrae in different parts of the spinal column (spine) have a general structural plan, but each of them has its own characteristics.

Each vertebra has a body and an arch that closes the vertebral foramen. When the vertebrae connect, these openings form the spinal canal, which houses the spinal cord.

Processes extend from the vertebral arch. We can feel them on our back. They are what form the “spine pattern” when we bend over.

Two transverse processes extend from the vertebral arch to the sides, and, finally, two pairs of articular processes (superior and inferior) form the intervertebral joints. Ligaments and muscles are attached to the processes of the vertebrae.

Thus, there are two types of joints between the vertebrae - intervertebral joints between the articular processes and intervertebral discs between the vertebral bodies.

Intervertebral discs absorb shocks and impacts that occur during movements, i.e., they also play the role of a shock absorber. This is due to the fact that each disc has an elastic springy center - the nucleus pulposus, surrounded by a strong fibrous ring. Movement within the core allows the vertebrae to rock relative to each other. This provides the flexibility needed to form physiological bends and movements.

The sacral vertebrae in an adult fuse with each other and form a single bone - the sacrum, which has the shape of a triangle. The coccygeal vertebrae form the coccyx.

Free movement and shock absorption are possible thanks to the natural curves of the spine and the back muscles, which provide these movements and support the spinal column in the correct position.

The correct position of the spine is when there are four natural (physiological) curves. In the cervical and lumbar regions the vertebrae are slightly curved forward, and in the thoracic and sacral regions - backward. By distributing the body weight over the entire spine, the bends reduce the likelihood of injury and act as a shock absorber when walking, running, and jumping.

When all these components are healthy (muscles, joints, intervertebral discs), and the physiological curves of the spine are sufficiently pronounced, we can support the weight of our own body without signs of pain or discomfort.

The range of motion in the intervertebral joints is very small, but due to the fact that there are many of these joints, a wide variety of movements is provided (rotation, flexion and extension, bending to the sides).

Large joints of the upper limb are presented in Figure 10.

The humerus is a long tubular bone. It connects to the forearm through the elbow joint. The forearm consists of two bones: the ulna and the radius. The ulna on the forearm is located on the same side as the little finger, and the radius is on the same side as the thumb.

The hand has a palmar and dorsal surface. The skeleton of the hand consists of the carpal bones, metacarpal bones and phalangeal bones. The bony base of the hand consists of 27 bones.

Shoulder joint

The arms in the shoulder joint (Fig. 11) have high mobility, since its congruence is insignificant, the joint capsule is thin and loose, and there are almost no ligaments. Therefore, frequent (called habitual) dislocations and injuries are possible here.

The shoulder joint is a triaxial ball-and-socket joint formed by the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the lateral end of the spine of the scapula. The joint is strengthened by the coracobrachial ligament and muscles. Movements in the joint are possible around three axes: flexion (raising the arm forward to a horizontal level) and extension, abduction (to a horizontal level) and adduction, rotation of the entire limb. The sternoclavicular joint is also involved in abduction and flexion of the shoulder above the horizontal level.

elbow joint

The elbow joint (Fig. 12) is complex, consisting of the humeroulnar, humeroradial and proximal radioulnar joints. Movement in it is carried out around two axes: flexion, extension and rotation of the forearm.

Large joints of the lower limb are presented in Figure 13.

The skeleton of the free lower limb is formed by the femur, patella, leg bones (tibia and fibula) and foot.

The bones of the foot are divided into the bones of the tarsus, metatarsus and phalangeal bones. The skeleton of the foot has features that depend on its role as part of the supporting apparatus in an upright position. The bones of the foot form one transverse and five longitudinal arches, concave to the sole, and convex to the back.

The outer edge of the foot stands lower, almost touching the surface of the support, and is called the supporting arch. The inner edge is raised and open on the medial side. This is a spring vault. This structure of the foot softens shocks and ensures elasticity of walking. The transverse arch is located at the level of the highest points of the five longitudinal arches. Reduced arches of the feet are called flat feet.

Hip joint presented in Figure 14.

The hip joint is formed by the acetabulum of the pelvic bone and the head of the femur. Inside the cavity of the hip joint is the ligament of the femoral head. It plays the role of a shock absorber when moving.

Movements in the hip joint occur around three axes: flexion and extension, adduction and abduction, and inward and outward rotation.

Knee-joint formed by three bones: the femur, tibia and patella (popularly called the kneecap). The articular surfaces of the tibia and femur are supplemented with intra-articular cartilage: semilunar medial and lateral menisci. Menisci, being elastic formations, absorb shocks transmitted from the foot along the length of the limb when walking, running and jumping.

Inside the joint cavity are the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments, connecting the femur and tibia. They further strengthen the joint.

The knee joint is a complex block-rotational joint. The movements in it are as follows: flexion and extension of the lower leg and, in addition, minor rotational movements of the lower leg around the axis. The last movement is possible with a bent knee.

Ankle joint formed by both bones of the leg and the talus bone of the foot. The joint is strengthened by ligaments running on all sides from the bones of the lower leg to the talus, navicular and calcaneus. According to the shape of the articular surfaces, the joint is classified as trochlear. The movements produced in the joint - flexion and extension of the foot, small movements to the sides (abduction and adduction) - are possible with strong plantar flexion.

By studying this system more deeply, we will see its protective value, as well as its connections with all other systems of the body.

Structure and location of bones and joints

The skeletal system includes hard connective tissue that forms cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.

• Cartilage acts to connect and provide flexibility and protection.
• Ligaments connect bones to joints, allowing two or more bones to move together.
• Tendons that connect muscles to bones.

Bones

Bones are the toughest connective tissue structures. They vary greatly in size and shape, but are similar in structure, development and function. Bones consist of living, active connective tissue of the following composition:

• Water - about 25%.
• Inorganic substances - calcium and phosphorus - make up approximately 45%.
• Organic matter makes up about 30% and includes bone cells, osteoblasts, blood and nerves.

Bone Formation

Since bones are living tissue, they grow during childhood, bleed and hurt when broken, and are capable of healing on their own. As we grow older, bones harden—ossification—as a result of which the bones become very durable. Bones also contain collagen, which provides their elasticity and firmness, and calcium, which gives strength. Many bones are hollow. And inside their cavities they contain bone marrow. Red produces new blood cells, while yellow stores excess fats. Like the epidermis of the skin, bones are constantly renewed, but, unlike the upper layer of skin, this process is very slow. Special cells - osteoclasts - destroy old bone cells, and osteoblasts form new ones. When bone grows, they are called osteocytes.

There are two types of bone tissue: compact (dense) substance, or hard bone tissue, and spongy substance, or porous tissue.

Compact substance

The compact substance has an almost solid structure, it is hardy and durable.

The compact bone substance consists of several Haversian systems, each of which includes:

• The central Haversian canal contains blood and lymphatic vessels, as well as nerves that provide “nutrition” (respiration and cell division) and “sensation”.
• Bone plates called lamellae located around the Haversian canal. They form a hard, very durable structure.

Cancellous bone

Cancellous bone tissue is less dense and makes the bone look like a sponge. It has many more Haversian canals and fewer thin plates. All bones are composed of a combination of compact and spongy tissue in varying proportions, depending on their size, shape and purpose.

The bones are covered on top with periosteum or cartilage, which provides additional protection, strength and endurance.

• The periosteum covers the length of the bone.
• Cartilage covers the ends of the bones at the joint.

Periosteum

The periosteum has two layers: the inner layer produces new cells for bone growth and repair, and the outer layer contains many blood vessels that provide nutrition.

Cartilage

Cartilage is made up of tough connective tissue containing collagen and elastin fibers, which provide flexibility and endurance. There are three types of cartilage:

1. Hyaline cartilage, sometimes called articular cartilage, covers the ends of bones where they meet at joints. They prevent damage to bones when they rub against each other. They also help attach certain bones, such as the ribs, to the rib cage, and they make up some parts of the nose and trachea.
2. Fibrous cartilage is less flexible and slightly denser and makes up the cushions between bones, such as between vertebrae.
3. Elastic cartilage is very flexible and makes up parts of the body that need fairly free movement, such as the ears.

Ligaments

Ligaments are made of fibrous cartilage tissue and are tough tissue that connects bones at joints. Ligaments allow bones to move freely along a safe path. They are very dense and prevent the bones from making movements that could cause damage.

Tendons

Tendons are made up of bundles of collagen fibers that attach muscles to bones. Thus, the calcaneal (Achilles) tendon attaches the calf to the foot at the ankle. Wide and flat tendons, such as those that attach the muscles of the head to the skull, are called aponeuroses.

Types of bones

The skeleton is made up of different bones that have different locations and functions. There are five types of bones: long, short, asymmetrical, flat and sesamoid.

1. Long bones are the bones of the limbs, i.e. arms and legs. They are longer than wide.
2. Short bones are small in size. They are the same length and width, round or cuboid in shape. These include, for example, the bones of the wrists.
3. Asymmetrical bones come in different shapes and sizes. These include the bones of the spine.
4. Flat bones are thin and usually round, such as the shoulder blades.
5. Sesamoid bones are small, located inside the tendons, such as the patella.

Long bones consist mainly of compact substance. They have cavities filled with yellow bone marrow.

Short, asymmetrical, flat and sesamoid bones are composed of a spongy substance containing red marrow, which is covered by a compact substance without marrow. Some bones, such as the face, have cavities filled with air that make them lighter.

Bone growth

Skeletal growth continues throughout life, with bone reaching its final thickness, length and shape by age 25. After this, bones continue to develop as old cells are replaced by new ones. The following factors influence bone development:

• Genes - Individual characteristics of bones, such as length and thickness, are inherited.
• Nutrition - Full bone development requires a balanced diet rich in vitamin D and minerals such as calcium. Vitamin D promotes the absorption of calcium from the digestive system, which is carried to the bones by the blood. The presence of calcium is what makes bones so strong.
• Hormones - affect the growth and development of bones. Hormones are chemical carriers of information that enter the bones with the blood. They tell the bones when to stop growing and so on.

The skeletal system is capable of self-repairing if damaged. During a fracture, the following processes occur:

1. Blood clots at the fracture site.
2. Osteoblasts form new bone tissue.
3. Osteoclasts remove old cells and direct the growth of new ones.

This process can be assisted by using splints, plaster, metal plates, screws, etc. to hold the bone in place while it heals.

Skeleton

Now that we have studied the components of the skeletal system and their connections, we can consider the skeleton as a whole. We need to learn to recognize the bones and joints of the skeleton to know how the human body holds and moves.

The human skeleton consists of two parts: the accessory and axial skeleton.

The axial skeleton consists of:

• Skulls - brain and facial.
• Spine - cervical and dorsal.
• Chest.

The accessory skeleton consists of:

• Upper limb belts.
• Belts of the lower extremities.

Scull

The skull consists of the bones of the facial and brain regions, which have an asymmetrical shape and are connected by sutures. Their main function is to protect the brain.

Brain section of the skull consists of eight bones.

Skull bones:

• 1 frontal bone forms the forehead and has two cavities, one above each eye.
• The 2 parietal bones form the crown of the skull.
• 1 occipital bone forms the base of the skull, it contains a hole for the spinal cord, through which the brain is connected to the rest of the body.
• The 2 temporal bones form the temples on the sides of the skull.
• 1 ethmoid bone forms part of the nasal cavity and has many small cavities on either side of the eyes.
• 1 sphenoid bone forms the eye sockets and has 2 cavities on either side of the nose.

Facial part of the skull consists of 14 bones.

Facial bones:

• The 2 zygomatic bones form the cheeks.
• The 2 bones of the upper jaw join to form the upper jaw, which contains openings for the upper teeth and the two largest cavities.
• 1 lower jaw has holes for the lower teeth. It is attached by synovial ellipsoidal joints, which provide jaw movement during speech and food consumption.
• The 2 nasal bones form the bridge of the nose.
• The 2 palatine bones form the floor and walls of the nose and the palate.
• The 2 turbinates form the sides of the nose.
• 1 vomer forms the upper part of the nose.
• 2 lacrimal bones form 2 eye sockets, which have openings for the lacrimal ducts.

Spine

The spine consists of individual bones - vertebrae - that are asymmetrical and connected by cartilaginous joints, except for the first two vertebrae, which have a synovial joint. The spine provides protection to the spinal cord and can be divided into five sections:

• Cervical (cervical) - includes seven bones of the neck and upper back. The first bone, the atlas, supports the skull and is connected to the occipital bone by an ellipsoidal joint. The second vertebra, epistropheus (axial), provides rotational movements of the head thanks to a cylindrical joint between it and the first cervical vertebra.
• Thoracic - consists of 12 bones of the upper and middle part of the spine, to which 12 pairs of ribs are attached.
• Lumbar - 5 bones of the lower back.
• The sacrum is the five fused bones that form the base of the back.
• The coccyx is a tail of four fused bones.

Rib cage

The rib cage consists of flat bones. It forms a protected cavity for the heart and lungs.

The bones and synovial joints that make up the chest include:

• 12 thoracic vertebrae of the spinal column.
• 12 pairs of ribs forming a cage at the front of the body.
• The ribs are connected to the vertebrae by flat joints that allow slow sliding movements of the chest during breathing.
• Each rib connects to a vertebra in the back.
• 7 pairs of ribs in front are attached to the sternum and are called the ribs themselves.
• The next three pairs of ribs are attached to the upper bones and are called false ribs.
• At the bottom there are 2 pairs of ribs that are not attached to anything and are called oscillating.

Shoulder girdle and arms

The shoulder girdle and arms consist of the following bones and synovial joints:

• The shoulder blades are flat bones.
• The collarbones are long bones.
• The joint between these bones is flat and allows a small amplitude of sliding movement.
• The shoulder contains the long humerus.
• The shoulder blades are connected to the humerus by ball-and-socket joints that allow a full range of movement.
• The forearm consists of the long ulna and radius bones.

The synovial elbow joint, connecting the three bones of the arm, is trochlear and allows flexion and straightening. The joint between the humerus and radius is cylindrical and also provides rotational movements. These rotational movements provide supination - rotation, in which the hand is turned palm up, and pronation - inward movement until the hand is palm down.

• Each wrist consists of 8 short bones.

At the wrist, the radius bone is connected to the carpal bones by an ellipsoidal joint, which allows flexion and extension, inward and outward movement.

• The 5 metacarpal bones form the palm and are miniature LONG bones.
• Each finger, except the 2 thumbs, consists of 3 phalanges - miniature long bones.
• The thumbs have 2 phalanges. There are 14 phalanges on each hand.

Lower limbs and legs

The lower extremity girdle and legs include the following bones and synovial joints:

• The sacrum and coccyx, located in the center of the pelvis, form the base of the spine.
• The pelvic bones form the prominent lateral surfaces of the pelvis, connected to the sacrum and coccyx by fibrous joints.
• Each pelvic bone consists of 3 fused flat bones:

1. Ilium in the groin area.
2. Pubic bone.
3. Ischium of the thigh.

• The long femur bones are located in the hips.
• The hip joints are ball-and-socket and allow unrestricted movement.
• The long tibia and fibula form the lower leg.

Lower limb belt

• The patella is formed by sesamoid bones.
• Seven short tarsal bones form the ankle.

The tibia, fibula, and tarsal bones are connected at the ankle by an ellipsoidal joint that allows the foot to flex, extend, and rotate inward and outward.

These four types of movement are called:

1. Flexion is the upward movement of the foot.
2. Plantar flexion - straightening the foot down.
3. Eversion - turning the foot outward.
4. Inversion - turning the foot inward.

• 5 miniature long metatarsal bones form the foot.
• Each finger, except the thumbs, has three miniature long bones - phalanges.
• The thumbs have two phalanges.

There are 14 phalanges on each foot, just like on the hands.

The tarsal bones are connected to each other and to the metatarsal bones by flat joints that allow only minor sliding movements. The metatarsal bones are connected to the phalanges by condyloid joints, and the phalanges are connected to each other by trochlear joints.

Arches of the feet

The foot has three arches, which distribute the body's weight between the ball of the foot and the ball of the foot when we stand or walk.

• Internal longitudinal arch - runs along the inside of the foot.
• External longitudinal - goes outside the foot.
• Transverse arch - runs across the foot.

The bones of the leg, the tendons that attach the muscles of the foot to them, determine the shape of these arches.

Functions of the skeletal system

Now that you are familiar with the structure of your skeleton, it will be useful to know exactly what functions the skeletal system performs.

The skeletal system has 5 main functions: protection, support and shape of the body, movement, storage and production of blood cells.

Protection

Bones protect internal organs:

• The skull is the brain.
• Spine - spinal cord.
• The chest is the heart and lungs.
• The lower extremity girdle is the reproductive organs.

Support and shaping

It is the bones that give the body its unique shape and also support its weight.

• Bones support the weight of the entire body: skin, muscles, internal organs and excess fat tissue.
• The shape of body parts such as the ears and nose is determined by cartilage, and it also supports bones where they connect to form joints.
• Ligaments provide additional support to the bones at joints.

Movement

The skeleton serves as a framework for the muscles:

• Tendons attach muscles to bones.
• Muscle contraction moves bones; the range of their movements is limited by the type of joint: maximum possibilities with a ball-and-socket joint, as in the synovial hip joint.

Storage

Minerals and blood fats are stored in bone cavities:

• Calcium and phosphorus, if they are in excess in the body, are deposited in the bones, helping to strengthen them. If the content of these substances in the blood decreases, it is replenished with them from the bones.
• Fats are also stored in the bones in the form of yellow bone marrow and, if necessary, are released from there into the blood.

Blood cell production

Red bone marrow, located in the spongy substance, produces new blood cells.

By studying the skeletal system, we can see how all parts of the body work as a whole. Always remember that each system works together with others, they cannot function separately!

Possible violations

Possible disorders of the skeletal system from A to Z:

• ANKYLOSING SPONDYLITIS is a joint disease that usually affects the spine and causes back pain and stiffness.
• ARTHRITIS - inflammation of the joints. It can be acute or chronic.
• PAGET'S DISEASE is a thickening of the bone that causes pain.
• PAIN IN THE COCCYX usually occurs as a result of injury.
• BURSITIS is an inflammation of the synovial bursa that impedes joint movement. Bursitis of the knee is called prepatellar bursitis.
• BURSITIS OF THE BIG TOE - inflammation of the joint of the big toe, which increases with pressure.
• GANGLION - A harmless tumor of the ligaments near a joint. Usually occurs on the hands and feet.
• A HERNIATED DISC is a swelling of one of the fibrocartilaginous discs separating the vertebrae, which causes pain and muscle weakness.
• KYPHOSIS - curved curvature of the thoracic spine - hump.
• DUPUYTREN'S CONTRACTURE - limited flexion of the finger as a result of shortening and thickening of the fibrous tissue of the palm.
• LORDOSIS is a concave curvature of the lumbar spine.
• METATARSALGIA is pain in the arch of the foot, usually occurring in middle-aged, overweight people.
• HAMMER FINGER - a condition where, due to damage to the tendons, the finger does not straighten.
• OSTEOARTHRITIS is a disease in which joints are destroyed. The cartilage in the joint wears down, causing pain. In some cases, it is necessary to replace a joint, such as a knee or hip.
• OSTEOGENESIS is a defect in bone cells that causes brittle bones.
• OSTEOMALACIA, or rickets, is a softening of the bones as a result of a lack of vitamin D.
• OSTEOMYELITIS is an inflammation of the bones caused by a bacterial infection, often following local trauma.
• OSTEOPOROSIS is a weakening of bones that can be caused by changes in the levels of hormones estrogen and progesterone.
• OSTEOSARCOMA is a fast-growing malignant bone tumor.
• OSTEOCHONDRITIS - softening of the bone and, as a result, deformation. Occurs in children. FRACTURE - A bone that is broken or cracked as a result of trauma, severe pressure on the bone, or because the bone is brittle, such as after an illness.
• HUMOMOUS PERIARTHRITIS - sharp pain in the shoulders. They occur in middle-aged and elderly people and make movement difficult. FLAT FOOT - insufficient arching of the foot, causing pain and tension. GOUT is a disorder of chemical processes, the symptoms of which are pain in the joints, most often the thumbs. Knees, ankles, wrists and elbows are also susceptible to the disease.
• A CARTILAGE TEAR is a knee injury caused by a forceful twist that damages the cartilage between the joints. STRAIN - A sprain or tear of a ligament that causes pain and inflammation. RHEUMATIC ARTHRITIS is a tumor that destroys joints. It first affects the fingers and toes, then spreads to the wrists, knees, shoulders, ankles and elbows.
• SYNOVITIS - post-traumatic inflammation of the joint.
• SCOLIOSIS - lateral curvature of the spine (relative to the midline of the back). CERVICAL VERTEBRATE DISPLACEMENT is the result of a sharp jerk of the neck back, causing damage to the spine.
• STRESS - joint stiffness and constant overexertion are symptoms of excessive stress on the skeletal system.
• CHONDROSARCOMA is a slow-growing tumor, usually benign, which turns malignant. Harmony

Harmony

The skeletal system is a complex chain of organs on which the health of the entire organism depends. The skeleton, together with the muscles and skin, determines the appearance of our body; it is a framework that is similar in all people and at the same time makes each person unique. For the skeletal system to function effectively: movement, protection, storage and reproduction, it must interact with the rest of the body's systems. It's very easy to take all this for granted; awareness of how the body should and should not work often places additional responsibility on us for our own body. There are many ways to ease and prolong the functioning of the skeletal system, the main one of which is maintaining a balance between internal and external care.

Liquid

Water makes up about 25% of bone; The synovial fluid that lubricates joints also consists of water. Most of this water comes from drinking and eating (from fruits and vegetables). Water from the digestive system enters the blood and then into the bones. It is important to maintain the level of water in the body by consuming the optimal amount of fluid. You need to understand the fundamental difference between healthy and harmful drinks. Plain water is one of the first, and should not be underestimated. The liquid is not useful and even harmful when it contains foreign additives, especially caffeine. Caffeine is found in coffee, tea, cola and acts as a diuretic, i.e. increases urine production and reduces the efficiency of fluid intake. With a lack of water in the body, bones become dry and brittle, and joints become stiff and more easily damaged.

Nutrition

Bones are constantly renewed: old cells are destroyed by osteoclasts, and new ones are formed by osteoblasts, which is why bones are very dependent on nutrition.

So, to maintain health, the skeletal system needs a nutritious diet:

• Calcium is found in Swiss cheeses and cheddar; it strengthens bones.
• Magnesium is rich in almonds and cashews; it also strengthens bones.
• Phosphorus is found in many foods and is essential for bone growth and development.
• Vitamin D is found in fish such as herring, mackerel and salmon; It promotes the absorption of calcium by the bones.
• Vitamin C, found in peppers, watercress and cabbage, is needed for the production of collagen, which keeps bones and joints strong.
• Zinc, found in pecans, Brazil nuts and peanuts, promotes bone cell turnover.

Studies have shown that a diet oversaturated with proteins can cause calcium deficiency, since proteins are oxidizing agents, and calcium is a neutralizer. The higher the protein intake, the higher the need for calcium, which is removed from the bones, which ultimately leads to their weakening. This is the most common cause of osteoporosis.

The fight against free radicals continues in the skeletal system; antioxidants - vitamins A, C and E - increase its activity and prevent damage to bone tissue.

Rest

To maintain a healthy skeletal system, it is important to find the right proportion between rest and activity.

An imbalance can lead to:

• Stiff joints and resulting limited movement.
• Thin and weakened bones and associated weakness.

Activity

The skeletal system naturally develops more strength in bones that bear weight, while losing it in bones that are not used.

• Athletes can develop desirable bones by maintaining high mineral content.
• In people who are bedridden, bones become weak and thin as a result of loss of minerals. The same thing happens when plaster is applied to the bone. In this case, you will need to perform exercises to restore the bones.

The body independently determines its needs and responds to them by retaining or releasing calcium. And yet there is a limit to this process: too much stress can lead to damage to bones and joints if they are disproportionate to rest, just as insufficient activity leads to a lack of mobility!

Air

Individual sensitivity can affect the skeletal system. For example, many people have increased sensitivity to all kinds of vapors and exhaust gases. Once in the body, these substances reduce the efficiency of the skeletal system, resulting in an increased risk of diseases such as rheumatic and osteoarthritis, and people who already suffer from these diseases experience an exacerbation. Contact with exhaust gases, tobacco smoke, etc. should be avoided whenever possible. By inhaling clean, fresh air, we receive enough oxygen to nourish the skeletal system and activate the energy necessary for chemical reactions during its life.

Age

As we age, life processes in the body slow down, cells break down and eventually die. We cannot live forever, and our body is not able to always remain young due to many processes that we cannot control. During the aging process, the skeletal system gradually decreases its activity, bones weaken, and joints lose mobility. So we have a limited time when we can make full use of our body, which becomes more if we take proper care of our health. Now, with so many new opportunities, people's life expectancy has increased.

Color

The axial skeleton is the area where the seven main chakras are located. The word chakra is of Indian origin; in Sanskrit it begins with 1 “wheel”. Chakras are considered wheels of light that attract energy. We are talking about internal and external sources of energy that can influence human life processes. Each chakra is associated with a specific part of the body and has its own color. The anatomical location of the chakra indicates its connection with a particular organ, and the colors follow the sequence of the colors of the rainbow:

• The first chakra is located in the region of the coccyx; its color is red.
• The second chakra is located in the sacrum and is associated with the color orange.
• The third chakra is located between the lumbar and thoracic spine; its color is yellow.
• The fourth chakra is located at the top of the thoracic spine; its color is green.
• The fifth chakra is located in the cervical spine; its color is blue.
• The sixth chakra, blue, is located in the center of the forehead.
• The seventh chakra is located in the center of the crown and is associated with the color purple.

When a person is healthy and happy, these wheels spin freely, and their energy maintains beauty and harmony. It is believed that stress and disease block the energy in the chakras; blocks can be counteracted with the help of appropriate colors. For example, public speaking is a very exciting process associated with the throat area; The color of this area is blue, so a blue scarf can activate the energy, which will make the task easier. To ignorant people, this may seem like eccentricity, and yet this method of stress relief is actually sometimes safer and more effective than more traditional ones.

Knowledge

Research has shown that our moral state greatly affects our physical state, i.e. “happiness leads to health.”

To be happy, a person needs to be accepted, and not so much by others, but by himself! How many times do we tell ourselves: “I don’t like my weight, my figure, my height?” All this is determined by the skeletal system, and we can develop a very negative attitude towards it if we hate our appearance. We cannot radically change our skeleton, so we must learn to accept ourselves as we are. After all, it gives us so much movement and protection!

Negative thoughts lead to negative feelings, which in turn lead to illness and disorders. Anger, fear and hatred can have a physical manifestation, having a negative impact on the health of the body. Don't forget that thanks to the skeletal system you can turn the pages of this book, sit on a chair, and work. Isn't this amazing?

Special care

The skeletal system's response to overload can lead to serious health consequences, so it is important to find harmony between internal and external factors to maintain optimal health.

External stress:

• Excessive stress resulting in stress and damage.
• Excessive repetitive movements leading to injury.

Internal stress refers to hormonal imbalance:

• Childhood is the time of most active bone development, which is regulated by hormones.
• Adolescence is a time of great change when, under the influence of hormones, the skeletal system takes on adult forms.
• During pregnancy, hormones regulate the development of the child and the health of the mother.
• During menopause, hormone levels change dramatically, which leads to a weakening of the skeletal system.
• When under emotional stress, hormones aimed at combating stress can have long-term harmful effects on the skeletal system. So, with a lack of bone nutrition, the digestive system will also suffer, and this in turn will complicate the renewal of bone tissue.

The needs of the skeletal system must be considered if we want to maintain normal body function, and managing stress is a good start!