Internal combustion engine block. Cylinder block: how it appeared, developed and why it is needed at all

The basis of a piston internal combustion engine is the cylinder block. The engine block is used on internal combustion engines with 2 or more cylinders. The cylinder block is made in the form of a single cast part, which is designed for the following functions: it unites all engine cylinders, is the basis for attachments (cylinder head, crankcase) and has places (beds) for the crankshaft inside the structure, channels for lubrication and cooling systems.

What is the cylinder block made of?

The most common material for the manufacture of the engine block is cast iron. This is traditional stuff. Next on the list is aluminum in the form of various alloys. The rarest material for a cylinder block is magnesium alloy.

• Cast iron has such positive characteristics as rigidity and low sensitivity to engine overheating. The cylinder block is a device that operates in a constant change of temperature conditions, so the cast-iron block is in the lead here. At the same time, there is a big minus of the cast-iron block - a large mass.
• Aluminum has such positive properties as excellent engine cooling and low weight. Features of aluminum blocks is the selection and installation of sleeves. The most common today is Locasil technology - pressing aluminum-silicon sleeves and Nicasil - nickel coating. The disadvantage of the second technology is that it is not repairable. The cylinder block of nikosil technology is not subject to boring, but is changed as an assembly. This is costly for the car owner.
• magnesium alloy is not used for conveyor production of a cylinder block due to its high cost. Although, it is the perfect combination of the rigidity and strength of cast iron and the lightness of aluminum.

The main components of the cylinder block

• cylinder head(cylinder head). Mounted on top of the block with guide pins and cylinder head bolts. Between the cylinder head and the cylinder block is a very important part - the cylinder block gasket.
• Cylinder Block Gasket it can be asbestos-metal, non-asbestos or metal.
• engine cylinder- these are liners that are used in two versions: pressed directly into the cylinder block in an industrial way (usually for aluminum blocks); removable sleeves: "wet" and "dry" types.
• Carter. It is a constructive lower part of the cylinder block. Acts as a housing for KShM (crank mechanism). From below, the crankcase is closed by a crankcase pan.

Holes and channels for lubrication and engine cooling systems are arranged in the cylinder block itself. The drain plug of the cylinder block is designed to drain the coolant, while to drain the engine oil, there is a plug in the oil pan.

There are places in the cavity of the cylinder block to accommodate the camshaft drive. This place in front closes the cover of the cylinder block. At the bottom of the block are the supports for the main bearings of the crankshaft. Good luck in understanding the secrets of the engine block device.

In fact, the engine block is the main body of the engine without its insides - cylinder heads, pistons, connecting rods, crankshaft, flywheel and other parts - just a single cylinder block.

Typical cylinder block of an 8-cylinder engine

Most engine blocks are made partly from aluminum and partly from cast iron, although there was a lot of experimentation in the late 1990s, and some engine blocks were then even tried to be made of plastic. Such experimental materials have been used in prototype cars in the hope of developing lighter and more efficient vehicles. The fact is that the cast-iron cylinder block is quite large in size and makes up a significant part of the weight of the car. The cylinder block usually requires several people or special equipment to lift it.

As you can see from the photo above, the cylinder block is not just a rectangular body - it is an alloy of complex shape with numerous holes (the largest of which are for the crankshaft and pistons), channels, recesses and ledges. A series of channels and passages inside include a line and is designed to supply antifreeze from the radiator to all hot areas of the engine, preventing it from overheating. After the coolant has circulated throughout the engine, it is returned to the radiator to be cooled by the fan and sent back to the engine.

The core of the cylinder block of an internal combustion engine is always the cylinders. The number of cylinders determines the size and placement of the block, and most cars have between four and eight cylinders. There are three types of engine blocks depending on the location of the cylinders relative to each other:

• in-line cylinder block;
• V-shaped cylinder block;
• opposed cylinder block.

An oil pan is attached to the bottom of the block, which is essentially a bath for engine lubricating oil. Periodically, engine oil must be changed, and the oil pan in this case is emptied of the old oil and then filled with new.

During normal operation, the engine block becomes very hot and drivers should be careful when touching it.

The term "short-block" engine is most often used when things are very bad, and less often when you want something new. We explain: a short engine block is a set of an engine cylinder block and a number of engine components, which is most often required when the piston is worn as a reason for expensive repairs. It is the short block that is an excellent alternative to buying a whole engine, since when the piston group wears out, many engine parts do not actually wear out and they do not need to be replaced, so for many it makes no sense to buy a whole engine assembly, and the short block is specially designed so that to include only the most essential replacement parts. The second case (when you want something new) is when the short block is not just an alternative to the complete engine, but a means of improving the dynamics of the car - such a short block can have larger diameter cylinders with pistons.

A short block engine usually includes pistons with rings (already pressed into the cylinder block), connecting rods and a crankshaft. Short blocks always require the installation of additional internal parts, which include (but are not limited to):

• oil pump,
• oil pan,
• an exhaust manifold,
• cylinder head (cylinder head),
• gaskets.

However, the short block is different from the short block, and the set of certain components depends on the engine model and car. Many short blocks are available with camshafts and many additional parts (including gaskets, a small number of sensors).

Short block 4-cylinder engine with a set of pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft

But there is also the so-called long block - this is an improved and more complete short block, which includes, in addition to what the short block is equipped with, another cylinder head, oil pan, exhaust manifold, valve cover and a number of other parts . In fact, a long block is an almost complete engine.

Cylinder block

The cylinder block or crankcase is the backbone of the engine. On it and inside it are the main mechanisms and parts of engine systems. The cylinder block can be cast from gray cast iron (car engines ZIL-130, MA3-5335, KamAE-5320) or aluminum alloy (car engines GAZ-24 Volga, GAE-53A, etc.). A horizontal partition divides the cylinder block into upper and lower parts. Holes for installing cylinder liners are bored in the upper plane of the block and in the horizontal partition. In the cylinder, which is the guide when the piston moves, the engine cycle is performed. Sleeves can be wet or dry. The cylinder liner is called wet if it is washed by the cooling system liquid, and dry if it does not directly come into contact with the coolant.

Rice. 1. The block of cylinders and a head of the block of the V-shaped engine: 1 - the block of cylinders; 2 - block head gasket; 3 - combustion chamber; 4 - block head; 5 - cylinder sleeve; 6 - sealing ring; 7 - studs

Cylinders can be cast from gray iron together with water jacket walls as a single block or as separate sleeves installed in a block. Engines with cylinders made in the form of replaceable wet liners are easier to repair and operate (engines of GAZ-24 Volga, GAE-53A, ZIL-130, MA3-5335, KamAZ-5320, etc.).

The inner surface of the cylinder, inside which the piston moves, is called the mirror of the cylinder. It is carefully machined to reduce friction in the ringed piston cylinder and is often hardened to increase wear resistance and durability. The liners in the fleas of the cylinders are installed so that the coolant does not penetrate into them and into the sump, and the gases do not break out of the cylinder. It is also necessary to provide for the possibility of changing the length of the sleeves depending on the engine temperature. In order to fix the vertical arrangement of the sleeves, they have a special shoulder for resting on the cylinder block and mounting belts. Wet liners in the lower part are sealed with rubber rings placed in the grooves of the cylinder block (car engines KamAE-5320), in the grooves of the liners (car engines MA3-5335, ZIL-130, etc.), or copper ring gaskets installed between the block and the support the surface of the lower belt of the sleeve (engines of GAZ-24 Volga, GAE-53A, etc.). The upper end of the sleeve protrudes above the plane of the cylinder block by 0.02-0.16 mm, which contributes to better compression of the head gasket and reliable sealing of the sleeve, block and block head.

Rice. Fig. 2. Schemes of engine cylinders: a - without liners, but with a short insert (cars ZIL -157 K, GAZ -52-04); b and c - with a "wet" sleeve (YaMZ-2E6 diesel engines and KamAZ-5320 car); g - with a “wet” sleeve into which a short insert is pressed (on GAZ-24 Volga, GAZ-5EA, ZIL-130, etc.); 1 - cylinder block 2 g - water jacket; 3 - insert; 4, 5 to 6 - cylinder liners; 7 - sealing rings (rubber or copper, installed under the shoulder)

During engine operation, the working mixture burns in the upper part of the cylinders. Combustion is accompanied by the release of oxidation products that cause corrosion of the cylinders. To increase the wear resistance of cylinders in some engines, inserts made of anti-corrosion cast iron are used. They are pressed into the cylinder block (car engines ZIL-130K, GAZ-52-04) or into cylinder liners (car engines GAZ-24 Volga, GAZ-bZA, ZIL-130, etc.). This complicates the manufacturing technology of the engine. In the future, the designers intend to use special metals, which will make it possible to abandon the use of inserts in cylinders.

Transverse vertical partitions inside the cylinder block, together with the front and rear walls, provide it with the necessary strength and rigidity. In these partitions, as well as in the front and rear walls of the block, sockets are bored out for the upper halves of the main bearings of the crankshaft. The lower halves of the main bearings are placed in caps attached to the block with studs or bolts.

In V-shaped engines, one of the rows of the cylinder block is slightly offset relative to the other, which is caused by the location of two connecting rods on the connecting rod journal of the crankshaft: one for the right and the other for the left blocks. So, in the V-shaped engines of GAZ-53A cars, the left cylinder block is shifted forward (along the vehicle) by 24 mm, and in ZIL-130 cars - by 29 mm relative to the right block. The numbering of the cylinders is indicated first for the right cylinder block (along the vehicle), and then for the left: the cylinder closest to the fan has number one, etc.

The head cylinder serves as the space where the engine's workflow takes place; the walls of the cylinder direct the movement of the piston.

A cylinder block is a common casting in which the cylinders are located. In-line engines have one section of the cylinder block, while V-shaped engines have two sections (right and left), united by a common crankcase. The cylinder block is manufactured together with the crankcase. This casting, called a block crankcase, serves to mount and assemble all the mechanisms and devices of the engine.

The crankcase is cast from cast iron or aluminum alloy.

In in-line engines, in the manufacture of a cast iron block, the cylinders are cast together with the block. The inner working surface of the cylinders 6, carefully processed and polished, is called the mirror of the cylinder. Between the walls of the cylinders and the outer walls of the block there is a cavity 8, which is filled with water that cools the engine, and is called a water jacket.

In the case of casting an aluminum alloy crankcase, as well as with a cast-iron block for V-shaped engines, the cylinders are made in the form of separate cast-iron liners installed in the holes of the upper and lower baffles of the block. In the block, the sleeve is fixed by the upper or lower shoulder, which is included in the grooves of the block partitions, and is clamped by the head mounted on the top of the block on the gasket.

The sleeve is in direct contact with the water circulating in the water jacket and is called "wet". In this case, the sleeve is securely sealed in the lower baffle of the block using a copper or rubber ring or several rubber rings installed at the bottom in the grooves on the sleeve.

To the top of the block cylinders or liners most exposed to high temperature and the corrosive effect of exhaust gases, short sleeves are usually pressed in from special wear-resistant anti-corrosion cast iron to increase the life of engine cylinders.

With the lower arrangement of valves, on one side of the inline engine block there are inlet and outlet channels and sockets in which the valves are installed. On the same side of the block there is a chamber - a valve box, in which the details of the gas distribution mechanism are located. The valve box is closed with one or two covers.

In the case of the upper location of the valves in the side chamber of the block or both of its sections with a V-shaped design, there are pushers and rods of the gas distribution mechanism.

A timing gear cover is attached to the front of the crankcase, cast from cast iron or aluminum alloy. A cast-iron flywheel housing is attached to the rear of the crankcase. In the front and rear walls of the crankcase and its internal partitions, there are supports for the crankshaft and camshaft.

The upper plane of the cylinder block or each of its sections with a V-shaped design is carefully processed and a common head is installed on it, closing the cylinders from above. In the head above the cylinders, recesses are made that form the combustion chambers, and there is also a water jacket that communicates with the water jacket of the block. With the upper arrangement of valves in the cylinder head, in addition, valve seats are placed and inlet and outlet channels are cast. The head has threaded holes for screwing in spark plugs.

The cylinder head for carburetor engines is cast from an aluminum alloy. Such a head has a high thermal conductivity, as a result of which the temperature of the working mixture in the engine cylinders decreases at the end of the compression strokes. This makes it possible to increase the compression ratio of the engine without the appearance of detonation combustion of fuel during engine operation.

Rice. 3. Shapes of engine combustion chambers

The cylinder head is attached to the block with stud nuts or bolts. A sealing gasket is installed between the block and the head, which eliminates the passage of gases from the cylinders and the flow of water from the water jacket at the junction of the head and block. The gasket is made of asbestos cardboard lined with thin sheet steel, or asbestos cardboard impregnated with graphite with metal edges and holes. From below, a steel stamped pan is bolted to the crankcase flange on a sealing gasket. The plane of the crankcase connector coincides with the axis of the crankshaft or is located below it.

With a lower one-sided vertical arrangement of valves, the combustion chamber of a carburetor engine is shifted to the side

valves. This offset type combustion chamber provides good swirling of the mixture during compression and best conditions its combustion. To reduce the length I of the combustion chamber and improve the conditions for combustion of the working mixture, as well as to reduce the resistance to the flow of the mixture at the inlet to the cylinder, with such a chamber, an arrangement of lower valves inclined to the axis of the cylinder is usually used.

With the upper single-row arrangement of valves, the combustion chamber in carburetor engines usually has a semi-wedge shape, which provides the best conditions for the combustion of the working mixture. The semi-wedge combustion chamber, due to the simplicity of its shape, can be completely machined. This makes it possible to ensure the exact observance of the volume of the combustion chambers in all cylinders and increase the uniformity of the engine.

With both forms of the combustion chamber, part of its surface (displacer) is located close to the bottom of the piston when it is positioned at c. m. t. Such displacers contribute to a better distribution of the volume of the compressed working mixture and reduce the possibility of detonation during the combustion of the mixture.

In the manufacture of the crankcase, head and other parts (camshaft gear covers, etc.) from aluminum alloys, the overall weight of the engine is significantly reduced. In the case of using removable liners, it is easier to manufacture block crankcases and it is more convenient to repair cylinders when they are worn out.

In diesel engines, the gas pressure during combustion is much higher than in carburetor engines, i.e., diesel parts experience heavy loads, so they are made more durable and rigid.

The cylinder block is made of cast iron, which is particularly strong and rigid. This is achieved by a significant thickness of the walls of the cylinders and the crankcase, the presence of a larger number of ribs inside the crankcase and the displacement of the plane of the crankcase connector significantly below the axis of the crankshaft. The engine cylinders are supplied with dry (i.e., not in direct contact with water) liners that are inserted into the bored cylinders of the block, or wet insert liners made of special cast iron are used. Diesel cylinder heads are made of cast iron and also make them stronger and more rigid than carbureted engines.

With a high compression ratio, to obtain the smallest possible volume of the combustion chamber in diesel engines, only the upper arrangement of the valves is used. In engines with direct fuel injection ( YaMZ diesel engines), the head does not have recesses above the cylinders, and the combustion chamber is formed by a corresponding recess in the piston bottom.

TO category: - Design and operation of the engine

For many decades, motors were made from the most common materials - steel, cast iron, copper, bronze, aluminum. Quite a bit of plastic, sometimes some small elements, like carburetor bodies, are made of magnesium alloys. In the wake of the trend towards all-round lightening of structures and an increase in power while improving the environmental component, the composition of materials has changed markedly since then. What are engines made of today? We understand.

Most car owners probably know the main trend of modern automotive industry: an increase in engine power with a constant decrease in its volume and weight. The secret of this combination lies, among other things, in new materials and designs. Well, and, of course, a thorough study of all the elements of the power unit, as well as the no longer hidden absence of excess (read: unprofitable) safety margins.

Oddly enough, all kinds of nanotubes and other high-tech, which is constantly talked about in the media, are actually almost never used in engine building. In serial engines, the most expensive and complex materials are silicon nickel coatings, cermet composite (for example, known as Honda's FRM), various polymer-carbon compositions, and titanium alloys gradually appearing in serial engines, as well as alloys with a high nickel content, such as Inconel. In general, engine building remains a very conservative area of ​​mechanical engineering, where bold experiments in mass production are not welcome.

Progress is provided mainly by “fine tuning” and the use of well-known technologies as they become cheaper. The bulk of serial units consists mainly of cast iron, steel and aluminum alloys - in fact, the cheapest materials in mechanical engineering. However, there is still room for new technologies.

The largest part of any engine is the cylinder block. She is the heaviest. For many decades, cast iron served as the main material for blocks. It is strong enough, pours well into any shape, its treated surfaces have high wear resistance. The list of advantages includes a low price. Modern small displacement motors are still cast from cast iron, and it is unlikely that the industry will completely abandon this material in the near future.

The main task in improving cast iron alloys is to maintain high surface hardness while improving its auxiliary qualities, otherwise this may lead to the need to use cast iron liners for the cylinder block from a more wear-resistant alloy. They do this occasionally, but mostly on cargo engines, where this technology is financially justified.

Aluminum as a block material has also been used for a very long time and is being improved in approximately the same direction. Efforts are mainly aimed at improving the possibilities of its processing, at reducing the coefficient of expansion while maintaining the necessary plasticity of the material, and increasing the necessary aspects of the strength of the alloys.

Technologies for the use of low-purity recycled aluminum are also being developed. For these alloys, technologies other than casting are used, and there is a trend towards making cylinder blocks from aluminum in more compact engines. For example, the Volkswagen EA211 series engine today has an aluminum block that is 40% lighter than cast iron.

Magnesium alloys are significantly less popular. They are lighter than aluminum, but have a significantly lower corrosion resistance, do not tolerate contact with hot coolant, with steel fasteners. elevated temperature. On in-line six-cylinder blocks of BMW engines of the N52 and N53 series, for example, only the outer part of the block, the “shirt” of the cooling system, is made of magnesium alloy. For a relatively long block six-cylinder engine, this gives a weight gain of the order of 10 kg compared to an all-aluminum design. Magnesium alloys are also used for block crankcases of engines with detachable cylinders. Mostly motorcycle engines.

Engine components

If new technologies and materials are not very “friendly” with the largest part of the motor in general, then interesting surprises are possible in particular. The cylinder liners of any block are the point of application of all the latest technologies and materials. Ductile iron, surface hardening methods for high-silicon aluminum alloys, silicon carbide-nickel alloy plating, cermet matrices and steel spraying are widely used even on serial motors. We will not talk about cast iron and high-silicon aluminum, yet the technologies themselves are not only old, but also mass-produced. But about the rest of the materials it is better to tell a little more.

Hardened cast iron sleeves by technologyCGI(Compacted Graphite Iron) appeared to implement an extremely high degree of forcing in diesel engines. This cast iron is very different from the common gray cast iron. It has 75% higher tensile strength, 40% higher modulus of elasticity, and is twice as resistant to alternating loads. And its relatively low cost and strength make it possible to create cast iron blocks with a mass less than that of aluminum. But basically its use is limited to sleeves and crankshafts. The sleeves are very thin, heat-conducting and at the same time as technologically advanced and reliable as conventional cast iron sleeves. And crankshafts compete in strength with forged steel ones at a much lower cost.

Coating by technologyNicasil, in general, is not uncommon and far from new, but it remains one of the most high-tech and promising in its field. It was invented back in 1967 for rotary piston engines, and it managed to light up in the mass automotive industry. Porsche has been using it for cylinder liners since the 1970s, and in the 1990s they tried it on more mainstream engines such as BMW and Jaguar, but technology shortcomings and a high price forced it to be abandoned in favor of cheaper surface hardening methods for high-silicon alloys. , for example using Alusil technology.

Moreover, the most likely reason for the failure is just the increased cost of cylinder blocks with this coating, associated with the low manufacturability of the electroplating process and the high percentage of defects not immediately detected, which were later successfully attributed to high-sulfur gasolines.

However, this coating still remains the best choice to create a working surface in any soft metal, therefore, under various trade names, it is used in mass and especially racing engine building. For example, under the SCEM brand in Suzuki engines. Its disadvantages are mainly related to the very high cost of processing and poor adaptability to mass production when used with large multi-cylinder blocks.

Metal-ceramic matrix (MMC) , better known as FRM in Honda engines, is another original and interesting material. For example, the engine on the NSX supercar had sleeves made using this technology. Again, the technology is far from new, but, like the material, it is very promising. A Nicasil-type coating also belongs to MMC, but it has to be applied by a galvanic method, and rather hard nickel acts as a matrix.

In the FRM technology, the matrix material is aluminum, and the MMC is obtained by pouring a carbon fiber-based sleeve into an aluminum block. The use of carbon fiber is more technologically advanced. In addition, the matrix is ​​much thicker, slightly softer, much more resilient and completely integrated into the material of the block. Peeling, as happened with Nicasil, is simply not possible. Scoring and local damage due to the structure of the material are almost not terrible for him, and in case of wear, the cylinder can be bored due to the large margin in thickness.

There are also disadvantages to such coverage. Firstly, a considerable price, and secondly, a tough attitude towards piston rings, since its structure is poorly “tuned”. There is no way to create a full-fledged hone mesh, however, the oil is well retained in the fibers even without that. The edges of the fibers are very hard, and even superhard rings have a limited resource, and the piston wears intensively at the points of contact at the slightest runout, which implies the use of pistons with a minimum clearance and a very short skirt. In addition, the coating is very oil-absorbing. As a result, the motors constantly experienced increased oil consumption, which at a certain stage did not allow them to meet stringent environmental requirements.

However, now this problem is no longer relevant, new catalysts and new generations of low-ash oils allow you not to worry about this. And, of course, the cost of applying this type of coating is noticeably higher than that of Alusil or cast iron sleeves, but still less than that of Nicasil-like materials.

MMC coatings different types are also used in a wide range of engine parts. For example, in valve seats in the cylinder head, hardening of the outer beds of the camshafts, especially loaded places for fastening structural elements. This allows the widespread use of all-aluminum parts and reduce the weight of the structure due to simplification. Some engine parts may have large MMC parts such as valves. But even now this is not the lot of serial designs.

titanium alloys have also long been trying to use in the design of machines. In engines, this strong, lightweight and highly elastic material with excellent chemical resistance has very limited uses due to its high cost. But you can find serial designs with titanium parts. Titanium connecting rods, for example, have long been installed in Ferrari engines and the AMG tuning division. Titanium is also a good choice for springs, washers, rockers and other timing elements, EGR heat exchanger parts, as well as various fasteners. In addition, it is used to make working parts of high-performance turbines, and sometimes to make valves and even pistons.

Theoretically, parts made of high-silicon titanium alloys with a high content of intermetallic compounds and sicilides can be used in engines, but most titanium alloys show a serious loss of strength already at temperatures above 300 degrees - a change in ductility over a wide range and a large expansion coefficient, which does not allow creating durable parts with low weight. 3D printing of titanium alloys is also of limited use in engine building, for example, for creating exhaust systems on sports cars.

And here are the covers titanium nitride- one of the most popular means of hardening piston rings. This material works great on the silicon hardened layer of cylinder liners. It is also used as a spray on the chamfers of valves, including titanium, on the ends of the pushers of the valve mechanism and other engine components. Since the 1990s, the use of this hardening method has been steadily increasing, and it is replacing chromium plating, nitriding, and high-frequency hardening. Also, titanium nitride is a promising type of coating for cylinder liners: it can be applied by PA-CVD (plasma chemical vapor deposition), which means that such technologies can become serial in the near future if there is a demand for new wear-resistant cylinder coatings.

The already mentioned 3D printing is also actively used to create high-strength and high-precision heat-resistant Inconel alloy parts. This family of nickel-chromium heat-resistant alloys has long been the material for exhaust valves, top compression rings, springs, and even exhaust manifolds, turbine housings, and fasteners for high-temperature applications.

IN last years, in connection with the development of 3D printing technologies and the active use of Inconel alloys in them, small-scale internal combustion engines are increasingly acquiring parts from this very promising material. The working range of parts from it is at least 150-200 degrees higher than that of the most heat-resistant steels, and reaches 1200 degrees. As a hardening material, Inconel alloys have been used commercially for quite a long time, for example, in Mercedes-Benz engines, Inconel coating is used on engines of the M272 / M273 series.

plastics also continue to be introduced into engine designs. The elements of the intake and cooling system made of plastic are already familiar. But the further expansion of the range of oil-resistant and heat-resistant plastics with low warping made it possible to create plastic crankcases for internal combustion engines, valve covers, guides, housings of small structures inside the engine. The concepts of engines with a cylinder block made of plastic, or rather, from polymer-carbon compositions, have already been presented to the public. With a slightly lower strength than light alloys, plastic is cheaper to manufacture and much better recycled.

What is the upshot?

The study of the issue of the applicability of materials in engine building shows a clear direction: to reduce weight and improve other characteristics, the use of some supermaterials is either not particularly required, or impossible in principle due to physical and chemical properties. The development of technologies follows an evolutionary path - the improvement of both the production itself and traditional materials, the reorganization of the workflow and design optimization. So even in the medium term, we are unlikely to see a revolution in the production of internal combustion engines; rather, we will be talking about the gradual abandonment of this type of engine in principle in favor of electrical technologies, although there has not yet been a rapid technological breakthrough.