Reforms of 60-70 of the 19th century. The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century)

Reforms of the 60s - 70s of the 19th century in Russia, their consequences

By the middle of the 19th century. Russia's lagging behind the advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres was clearly manifested. International events (the Crimean War) showed a significant weakening of Russia in the foreign policy field as well. Therefore, the main goal of the internal policy of the government in the second half of the 19th century. was bringing the economic and social political system Russia in accordance with the needs of the time. In domestic politics Russia in the second half of the 19th century. three stages are distinguished: 1) the second half of the 50s - the beginning of the 60s - the preparation and implementation of the peasant reform; 2) - 60-70s carrying out liberal reforms; 3) 80-90s economic modernization, strengthening of statehood and social stability by traditional conservative administrative methods. The defeat in the Crimean War played the role of an important political prerequisite for the abolition of serfdom, because it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the country's socio-political system. Russia has lost international prestige and almost lost influence in Europe. The eldest son of Nicholas 1 - Alexander 11 came to the throne in 1855. He was quite well prepared for the management of the state. He received an excellent education and upbringing. His mentor was the poet Zhukovsky and he influenced the formation of the personality of the future tsar. From a young age, Alexander joined the military service and by the age of 26 he became a “full general”. Traveling in Russia and Europe expanded the horizons of the heir. His father attracted him to public service. He was in charge of the activities of the Secret Committees on the Peasant Question. And the 36-year-old emperor was psychologically and practically prepared to become the initiator of the liberation of the peasants as the first person in the state. Therefore, he went down in history as the "Liberator" king. His phrase about “it is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it begins to be abolished from below” meant that the ruling circles finally came to the idea of ​​the need to reform the state. Members of the royal family, representatives of the highest bureaucracy took part in the preparation of the reforms - Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs - Milyutin, Adjutant General Rostovtsev. After the abolition of the kr.prav, it became necessary to change local government in 1864. zemstvo reform. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all estates. The entire population was divided into 3 electoral groups - curia. 1 curia - landowners with > 2 acres of land or owners of real estate from 15,000 rubles; 2 curia - urban, urban industrialists and merchants with a turnover of at least 6,000 rubles / year were allowed here; 3 curia - rural. For the rural curia, the elections were multistage. The curiae were dominated by landlords. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. The scope of their activities was limited to solving economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly. Despite this, the zemstvos played a huge role in the development of education and health care. And they became the centers of the formation of the liberal noble and bourgeois opposition. The structure of zemstvo institutions: It is a legislative and executive body. The chairmen were local marshals of the nobility. Provincial and county assemblies worked independently of each other. They met only once a year to coordinate actions. Executive bodies - provincial and district councils were elected at zemstvo meetings. Solved the problem of tax collection, while a certain% remained in place. Zemstvo institutions were subordinate only to the Senate. The governor did not interfere in the activities of local institutions, but only monitored the legality of actions.

Positivity in the reform:

all-estate Flaws:

electivity

the beginning of the separation of powers was not admitted to the center of the state institution,

the beginning of the formation of civil society consciousness could not influence the policy of the center

were given unequal voting rights

contacts between zemstvos were forbidden

urban reform. (1870) "City Regulations" created all-estate bodies in the cities - city dumas and city councils headed by the mayor. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. The leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. It was under the strict control of the government administration.

The candidacy of the mayor was approved by the governor.

Electivity was granted for 3 curiae: 1 - industrialists and merchants (1/3 of taxes), 2 - medium-sized entrepreneurs (1/3), 3 - all the population of the mountains. Of the 707 provinces, 621 received a ref. MSU. The competencies are the same, the disadvantages are the same.

Judicial reform :

1864 - New court statutes promulgated.

Provisions:

the estate system of courts was abolished

all were declared equal before the law

publicity was introduced

competitiveness of legal proceedings

presumption of innocence

irremovability of judges

one system legal proceedings

a court of two types was created: 1. Magistrates' courts - they considered minor civil cases, the damage in which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were elected at county assemblies and approved by the senate. 2. General courts were of 3 types: Criminal and grave - in district court. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in judicial chamber. The highest court was Senate. Judges in general courts were appointed by the tsar, and jurors were elected at provincial assemblies.

Flaws: small estate courts continued to exist - for the peasants. For political processes, a Special Presence of the Senate was created, meetings were held behind closed doors, which violated the attack of publicity.

Military reform : 1874 - Charter on military service on the all-class military service of men who have reached the age of 20. The service life was set at ground forces- 6 years, in the Navy - 7 years. Recruitment was abolished. The terms of active military service were determined by the educational qualification. Persons with higher education served 0.5 years. To raise the competence of the top military leadership, the military ministry was transformed into general staff. The whole country was divided into 6 military regions. The army was reduced, military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of steel artillery pieces, the improvement of the horse park, the development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and, at the same time, to increase its combat effectiveness.

They were exempted from military duty if there was 1 child in the family, if they had 2 children, or if elderly parents were on his payroll. Cane discipline was abolished. Humanization of relations in the army has passed.

Reform in the field of education : 1864 In fact, an accessible all-estate education was introduced. Zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose along with state schools. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. The curriculum in gymnasiums was determined by universities, which created the possibility of a system of succession. During this period, secondary education for women was developed, and women's gymnasiums began to be created. Women are beginning to be admitted to universities as free students. University arr.: Alexander 2 gave the universities more freedom:

students could create student orgs

received the right to create their own newspapers and magazines without censorship

all volunteers were admitted to the universities

students were given the right to choose a rector

stud self-management was introduced in the form of a council of a fact

corporative systems of students and teachers were created.

Significance of reforms:

contributed to the more rapid development of capitalist relations in Russia.

contributed to the beginning of the formation of bourgeois freedoms in the Russian society (freedom of speech, personality, organizations, etc.). The first steps were taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.

contributed to the formation of civic consciousness.

contributed to the rapid development of culture and education in Russia.

The initiators of the reforms were some top government officials, the “liberal bureaucracy”. This explained the inconsistency, incompleteness and narrowness of most of the reforms. The logical continuation of the reforms of 60-70 could be the adoption of moderate constitutional proposals developed in 1881 by the Minister of Internal Affairs Loris-Melikov. They assumed the development of local self-government, the involvement of zemstvos and cities (with an advisory vote) in the discussion of national issues. But the assassination of Alexander II changed the course of the government. And the proposal of Loris-Melikov was rejected. The reforms gave impetus to rapid growth capitalism in all branches of industry. A free labor force appeared, the process of capital accumulation became more active, the domestic market expanded and ties with the world grew. Features of the development of capitalism in the industry of Russia had a number of features: 1) Industry wore multilayered character, i.e. large-scale machine industry coexisted with manufacturing and small-scale (handicraft) production. Also observed 2) uneven distribution of industry across the territory of Russia. Highly developed areas of St. Petersburg, Moscow. Ukraine 0 - highly developed and undeveloped - Siberia, Central Asia, Far East. 3) Uneven development by industry. Textile production was the most advanced in terms of technical equipment, heavy industry (mining, metallurgical, oil) was rapidly gaining momentum. Mechanical engineering was poorly developed. Characteristic for the country was state intervention in the industrial sector through loans, government subsidies, government orders, financial and customs policies. This laid the foundation for the formation of a system of state capitalism. The insufficiency of domestic capital caused an influx of foreign capital. Investors from Europe were attracted by cheap labor, raw materials and, consequently, the possibility of making high profits. Trade. In the second half of the 18th century completed the formation of the all-Russian market. The main commodity was agricultural products, primarily bread. Trade in manufactured goods grew not only in the city, but also in the countryside. Iron ore and coal were widely sold. Wood, oil. Foreign trade - bread (export). Cotton was imported (imported) from America, metals and cars, luxury goods from Europe. Finance. The State Bank was created, which received the right to issue banknotes. State funds were distributed only by the Ministry of Finance. A private and state credit system was formed, it contributed to the development of the most important industries (railway construction). Foreign capital was invested in banking, industry, railway construction and played a significant role in the financial life of Russia. Capitalism in Russia was established in 2 stages. 60-70 years were the 1st stage, when the restructuring of industry was going on. 80-90 economic recovery.

Carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century brought with them cardinal changes that affected all the most important aspects of the life of not only the state, but also society. In such a relatively short period of time, a number of reforms were implemented in such areas as the economy, education, culture, administration, and military affairs. In this article, bourgeois reforms will be briefly reviewed and described on all counts.

Russian emperor Alexander 2

In 1855, during a cannonade that thundered near the walls of the besieged Sevastopol, Nicholas 1 suddenly died. The title of emperor passes to his eldest son. Later, he will go down in the great history of Russia as Alexander 2 the Liberator.

The new emperor ascended the throne as an already formed personality - at the age of 36. I must say that up to this point he did not have his own specific political or economic program, since he was not an adherent of either liberals or reactionaries.

Prerequisites

Alexander Nikolaevich did not perceive and did not share ideas and worldviews that were far from life. He preferred to act, but at the same time he did not go ahead. He was well aware that without compromises and some concessions on his part, it was impossible to effectively manage the state. Therefore, Alexander 2 was sure of the need for transformations in the political circles that govern the state.

The new emperor sought to change the established order that had existed for centuries on the territory of Russia. And he began by returning the Decembrists from Siberia and allowing citizens to freely travel abroad. In addition, he placed new people, more intelligent and educated, in many very important government posts. Also, his brother Konstantin, a staunch liberal, appeared in the Cabinet of Ministers.

In the middle of the 19th century, the new government, as well as conservative circles, already clearly understood that the peasant question must be resolved at all costs. Attempts by the authorities to somehow soften serfdom did not lead to anything, since a whole army of landowners opposed this.

Finally, the prerequisites for bourgeois reforms in Russia regarding the peasant question have finally matured. Serfdom has outlived itself economically. The landlord households, which were kept afloat only thanks to the labor of enslaved peasants, fell into decay. This greatly worried the authorities and the government, which allocated huge amounts of money to support the landowners and their farms.

Abolition of serfdom

The bourgeois reforms of the 1960s and 1970s could not but affect the main part of the population of the Russian Empire - the peasantry. Many agreed that reforms in this area should be carried out in the first place. To do this, in 1857 the government created the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs.

To carry out this reform, Alexander 2 issued an order. It spoke of the need to create a number of committees that would develop a project for the liberation of the peasants. Here are the main provisions of this regulation:

• all land must be kept by the landowners as their personal property;
• peasants could receive land plots from the landowner only for working off or dues;
• give peasants permission to buy their estate from the landowner.

Based on this, the Main Committee presented its draft reform and sent it to the State Council for consideration. On February 19, 1861, the tsar approved the "Regulations on the Peasants". Metropolitan Philaret also drew up a royal manifesto on this occasion. And already on March 5, both documents were made public, and from that moment on, the bourgeois reforms of Alexander 2, concerning the peasant question, were launched.

What conditions were placed before them so that they could free themselves from serfdom? Of course, they were not profitable for the peasants. The provisions of 1861 created the most favorable conditions for maintaining the enslaving dependence of the main population of the country on the landowners. In addition, the bourgeois reforms of the 19th century forced the peasants to lease their masters' lands on obviously difficult conditions.

Zemstvo reform

It began on January 1, 1864. The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century, concerning not only county, but also provincial zemstvo institutions, assumed the creation of fundamentally new local governments. Prior to this law, they were bureaucratic bureaucrats and estates. This meant that the peasants were judged by the landlords, and the noblemen guarded their dominance at the state level.

Now, in accordance with the new "Regulations", zemstvo institutions were required to consist of representatives (elected vowels) of all estates without exception, but taking into account the property qualification, i.e. ownership of a business or land. The election of vowels was carried out separately and assumed 3 groups of voters: landowners, city dwellers and peasants.

As a result, the bourgeois reforms of Alexander 2, which introduced the so-called all-estate zemstvo, again transferred the entire leading role to the bourgeoisie and landowners, and the problems that they could solve concerned only local and economic needs. In addition, all their activities were under the control of the leaders of the nobility and governors.

urban reform

It was published on June 16, 1870. According to this provision, city dumas were created, which played the role of administrative bodies, as well as city councils in the form of executive bodies. Thus, the bourgeois reforms of the 1860-1870s, concerning both local zemstvo and city self-government, were built on the same basis.

New provisions did not allow them to go beyond the narrow framework of solving only economic issues. City councils, for example, were engaged in the improvement of the city, developed fire-fighting measures, equipped schools and hospitals, took care of trade, etc. The dependence of city self-government not only on the governors, but also on the government was even greater than that of the zemstvos.

Judicial reform

New commercial and industrial activities, industrial relations, as well as city and zemstvo councils needed updated courts. The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century could not but affect such important areas of public relations.

The courts had to be reformed in such a way that they became free from any influence of the noble administration. In addition, they had to guarantee legal equality for all classes and protect the right to property. To do this, Alexander 2 on November 20, 1864 signed an order on the introduction of judicial reform, supplemented by new charters. They established the principle of universality.

As part of the new reform, 2 types of courts were created. The first is the district, whose duties included the proceedings in civil and criminal cases and the court chambers, which play the role of cassation instances. The second type were magistrates' courts, considering only various minor offenses. An institute of sworn attorneys or lawyers was also created, which provided legal assistance to citizens.

Bourgeois reforms 60-70 years. they also introduced the presence of military courts, which were intended to conduct political trials. But at the same time, special volost courts for peasants and special courts for clergy remained. And this, it should be noted, violated the new principle of all-estate.

Military conversions

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century also affected the army. This need was caused, first of all, by the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Crimean War and those foreign policy tasks that could be solved solely with the help of the army. She at all times stood guard over the preservation of the unity of the state, and without her it was impossible to resolve issues relating to interstate relations.

Also, the army is the most important body of the tsarist autocracy, with the help of which it fought the unrest that flared up from time to time in many parts of the country. It must always be strong, politically stable, and most importantly combat-ready.

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s, concerning the transformation of the army, were the first to update the War Ministry, and the entire state was divided into military districts. Recruitment sets of soldiers have been cancelled. Instead, they introduced universal military service. It concerned men over the age of 20 years. Also changed the terms of military service. Instead of the previous 25, a 6-year term was established for soldiers and a 7-year term for employees in the navy.

Education reform

Alexander 2 understood that the bourgeois reforms in Russia would not give the desired effect if the country did not have literate and well-trained specialists. To do this, they began to create new types educational institutions. Gymnasiums were divided into classical ones with an 8-year term of study and real ones, later called schools. The latter trained specialists for various branches of industry and trade. In addition, new universities have opened in different cities of the country. Higher education was also introduced for women.

Importance of Reforms

The significance of the bourgeois reforms can hardly be overestimated. After serfdom was abolished, capitalism in Russia was finally and irrevocably established. From a backward agricultural country, it began to rapidly turn into an agrarian-industrial one.

Also, the abolition of serfdom led to the decomposition of the peasantry itself as a class. This process played an extremely important role in the formation of two new classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century were of great importance for the Russian Empire and its further development. Thanks to them, the country turned into a bourgeois monarchy. But, despite the fact that the reforms were very important, they still turned out to be half-hearted and somewhat inconsistent.

World-historical theory

materialist historians(I. A. Fedosov and others) define the period of the abolition of serfdom as a sharp transition from a feudal socio-economic formation to a capitalist one. They believe that the abolition of serfdom in Russia late, and the reforms that followed it were carried out slowly and incompletely. Half-heartedness in carrying out reforms caused indignation of the advanced part of society- the intelligentsia, which then resulted in terror against the king. Marxist revolutionaries believed that the country was "led" along the wrong path of development- "slow cutting off the rotting parts", but it was necessary to "lead" along the path of a radical solution of problems - the confiscation and nationalization of landowners' lands, the destruction of the autocracy, etc.

liberal historians, contemporaries of events, V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) and others, welcomed both the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms. The defeat in the Crimean War, they believed, revealed technical lag of Russia from W apad and undermined the international prestige of the country.

Later liberal historians ( I. N. Ionov, R. Pipes and others) began to note that in In the middle of the 19th century, serfdom reached the highest point of economic efficiency. The reasons for the abolition of serfdom are political. The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War dispelled the myth of the military power of the Empire, caused irritation in society and a threat to the stability of the country. The interpretation focuses on the price of reforms. Thus, the people were not historically prepared for drastic socio-economic changes and "painfully" perceived the changes in their lives. The government did not have the right to abolish serfdom and carry out reforms without comprehensive social and moral preparation of the entire people, especially nobles and peasants. According to liberals, the centuries-old way of Russian life cannot be changed by force.

ON THE. Nekrasov in the poem “To whom it is good to live in Rus'” writes:

The great chain is broken

broke and hit:

one end along the master,

others - like a man! ...

Historians of the technological direction (V. A. Krasilshchikov, S. A. Nefedov, etc.) believe that the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are due to the stage of Russia's modernization transition from a traditional (agrarian) society to an industrial one. The transition from traditional to industrial society in Russia was carried out by the state during the period of influence from the 17th-18th centuries. European cultural and technological circle (modernization - westernization) and acquired the form of Europeanization, that is, a conscious change in traditional national forms according to the European model.

“Machine” progress in Western Europe "forced" tsarism to actively impose an industrial order. And this determined the specifics of modernization in Russia. The Russian state, while selectively borrowing technical and organizational elements from the West, simultaneously conserved traditional structures. As a result, the country has situation of “overlapping of historical epochs”(industrial - agrarian), which later led to social shocks.

Industrial society introduced by the state at the expense of the peasants, came into sharp conflict with all the fundamental conditions of Russian life and was bound to give rise to protest both against the autocracy, which did not give the desired freedom to the peasant, and against the private owner, a figure previously alien to Russian life. The industrial workers who appeared in Russia as a result of industrial development inherited the hatred of the entire Russian peasantry, with its centuries-old communal psychology, for private property.

Tsarism is interpreted as a regime that was forced to begin industrialization, but failed to cope with its consequences.

Local historical theory.

The theory is represented by the works of Slavophiles and Narodniks. Historians believed that Russia, unlike Western countries, follows its own, special path of development. They substantiated the possibility in Russia of a non-capitalist path of development to socialism through the peasant community.

Reforms of Alexander II

Land reform. Main question in Russia during the XVIII-XIX centuries there was a land-peasant. Catherine II raised this issue in the work of the Free Economic Society, which considered several dozen programs for the abolition of serfdom, both Russian and foreign authors. Alexander I issued a decree "On free cultivators", allowing landowners to free their peasants from serfdom along with land for ransom. Nicholas I during the years of his reign, he created 11 secret committees on the peasant question, whose task was the abolition of serfdom, the solution of the land issue in Russia.

In 1857, by decree of Alexander II started to work secret committee on the peasant question, the main task of which was the abolition of serfdom with the obligatory allocation of land to the peasants. Then such committees were created for the provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and orders of both landlords and peasants were taken into account) was a reform was developed to abolish serfdom for all regions of the country, taking into account local specifics. For different areas were the maximum and minimum values ​​of the allotment transferred to the peasant are determined.

Emperor February 19, 1861 signed a number of laws. Was here Manifesto and Regulations on the Granting of Freedom to the Peasants us, documents on the entry into force of the Regulations, on the management of rural communities, etc.

Abolition of serfdom was not a one-time event. First, the landlord peasants were released, then the specific and assigned to the factories. Peasants got personal freedom, but the land remained the property of the landowners, and while allotments were assigned, the peasants were in the position of "temporarily liable" carried duties in favor of the landowners, which in essence did not differ from the former, serfs. The plots handed over to the peasants were, on average, 1/5 less than those that they cultivated before. To these lands purchase agreements were signed, after that the "temporarily liable" state ceased, the treasury paid off for the land with the landowners, the peasants - with the treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption payments).

Land use, relations with the authorities were built through the community. She kept as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (the world).

As a result of reforms serfdom was abolished- that “obvious and tangible evil for everyone”, which in Europe was directly called “ Russian slavery. However, the land problem was not resolved, since the peasants, when dividing the land, were forced to give the landlords a fifth of their allotments.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first Russian revolution broke out in Russia, a peasant revolution in many respects in terms of the composition of the driving forces and the tasks that confronted it. This is what made P.A. Stolypin to implement land reform, allowing the peasants to leave the community. The essence of the reform was to resolve the land issue, but not through the confiscation of land from the landlords, as the peasants demanded, but through the redistribution of the land of the peasants themselves.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Zemstvo and city reforms. The principle carried out in 1864. zemstvo reform was electiveness and ignorance. In the provinces and districts of Central Russia and part of Ukraine Zemstvos were established as local self-government bodies. Elections to zemstvo assemblies were carried out on the basis of property, age, educational and a number of other qualifications. Women and employees were denied the right to vote. This gave an advantage to the wealthiest segments of the population. Assemblies elected zemstvo councils. Zemstvos were in charge affairs of local importance, promoted entrepreneurship, education, health care - carried out work for which the state did not have funds.

Held in 1870 urban reform in character was close to the zemstvo. In major cities city ​​councils were established on the basis of all-class elections. However, elections were held on a census basis, and, for example, in Moscow only 4% of the adult population participated in them. City councils and the mayor decided issues of internal self-government, education and health care. For control for zemstvo and city activities was created presence on city affairs.

Judicial reform. Newjudicial statutes were approved November 20, 1864 Judicial power was separated from the executive and legislative. A classless and public court was introduced, the principle of the irremovability of judges was affirmed. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown) and world. The general court was in charge of criminal cases. The trial became open, although in a number of cases cases were heard behind closed doors. The competitiveness of the court was established, the positions of investigators were introduced, the bar was established. The question of the guilt of the defendant was decided by 12 jurors. The most important principle of the reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law.

For the analysis of civil cases was introduced institute of magistrates. Appellate authority for the courts were judicial chambers You. position was introduced notary. Since 1872, major political cases were considered in Special Presence of the Governing Senate which became at the same time the highest instance of cassation.

military reform. After his appointment in 1861, D.A. Milyutin as Minister of War begins the reorganization of the command and control of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, directly subordinate to the Minister of War. In 1867, a military-judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the tsar approved the Charter on universal military service. A flexible conscription system was introduced. Recruitment was canceled, the entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. The term of service was reduced in the army to 6 years, in the navy to 7 years. Clerics, members of a number of religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some peoples of the Caucasus and the Far North were not subject to conscription into the army. The only son, the only breadwinner in the family, was released from service. In peacetime, the need for soldiers was much less than the number of conscripts, so all those fit for service, with the exception of those who received benefits, drew lots. For those who graduated from elementary school, the service was reduced to 3 years, for those who graduated from a gymnasium - up to 1.5 years, a university or institute - up to 6 months.

financial reform. In 1860 was the State Bank was established, happened cancellation of the pay-off 2 system, which was replaced by excises 3(1863). Since 1862 the only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenditures was the Minister of Finance; the budget is made public. Was done attempt at currency reform(free exchange of credit notes for gold and silver at the established rate).

Education reforms. "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" of June 14, 1864 liquidated the state-church monopoly on education. Now both public and private institutions were allowed to open and maintain elementary schools. persons under the control of district and provincial school councils and inspectors. Charter high school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions y, but introduced tuition fee.

Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real nye. In classical gymnasiums, humanitarian disciplines were mainly taught, in real ones - natural ones. After the resignation of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin (in 1861 D.A. Tolstoy was appointed instead of him) was accepted new gymnasium charter, retaining only classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums were replaced by real schools. Along with male secondary education there was a system of women's gymnasiums.

University Us tav (1863) provided Universities had broad autonomy, elections of rectors and professors were introduced. School management handed over to the Council of Prof. Essorov, to whom the students were subordinate. Were Universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk, higher courses for women were opened in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Moscow, Kazan.

As a result of the publication of a number of laws in Russia, a well-organized education system was created, including primary, secondary and higher educational establishments .

Censorship reform. In May 1862 censorship reform began, were introduced "temporary rules”, which in 1865 was replaced by a new censorship charter. Under the new charter, preliminary censorship was abolished for books of 10 or more printed sheets (240 pages); editors and publishers could only be prosecuted in court. Periodical publications were also exempted from censorship by special permission and upon payment of a deposit of several thousand rubles, but they could be suspended administratively. Only government and scientific publications, as well as literature translated from a foreign language, could be published without censorship.

The preparation and implementation of reforms were an important factor socio-economic development of the country. Administrative reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always keep pace with the ideas of the reformer tsar. The variety and speed of transformations gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost their bearings, organizations appeared, professing extremist, sectarian principles.

For economy post-reform Russia is characterized by rapid development commodity-money relations. noted growth in acreage and agricultural production, but agricultural productivity remained low. Yields and food consumption (except for bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time, in the 1980s compared to the 50s. the average annual grain harvest increased by 38%, and its export increased by 4.6 times.

The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, the middle peasant farms were ruined, the number of poor peasants grew. On the other side, strong kulak farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machinery. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But quite unexpectedly for them in the country the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade That is, to all new forms of activity: to the kulak, the merchant, the fence - to the successful entrepreneur.

In Russia large-scale industry was created and developed as a state. The main concern of the government after the failures of the Crimean War were enterprises that produced military equipment. The military budget of Russia in general terms was inferior to the English, French, German, but in the Russian budget it had more significant weight. Particular attention was paid to development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that the government directed funds, both Russian and foreign.

The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state on the basis of the issuance of special orders, That's why the big bourgeoisie was closely connected with the state. Fast an increase in the number of industrial workers However, many workers retained economic and psychological ties with the countryside, they carried a charge of discontent among the poor who lost their land and were forced to seek food in the city.

The reforms laid the foundation new credit system. For 1866-1875. was 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit societies and other financial institutions have been established. Since 1866, they began to actively participate in their work. major European banks. As a result of state regulation, foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction. The railroads ensured the expansion of the economic market in the vast expanses of Russia; they were also important for the operational transfer of military units.

In the second half of the 19th century, the political situation in the country changed several times.

During the preparation of the reforms, from 1855 to 1861, the government retained the initiative of action, attracted all the supporters of the reforms - from the highest bureaucracy to the democrats. Subsequently, the difficulties with reforms exacerbated the domestic political situation in the country. The struggle of the government against opponents from the "left" acquired a cruel character: the suppression of peasant uprisings, the arrests of liberals, the defeat of the Polish uprising. The role of the III Security (gendarme) department was strengthened.

IN 1860s radical movement entered the political arena populists. Raznochintsy intelligentsia, based on revolutionary democratic ideas and nihilism DI. Pisarev, created the theory of revolutionary populism. The populists believed in the possibility of achieving socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the liberation of the peasant community - the rural "peace". "Rebel" M.A. Bakunin predicted a peasant revolution, the fuse of which was to be lit by the revolutionary intelligentsia. P.N. Tkachev was the theorist of a coup d'état, after which the intelligentsia, having carried out the necessary transformations, would liberate the community. P.L. Lavrov substantiated the idea of ​​thorough preparation of the peasants for the revolutionary struggle. IN 1874 began a mass "going to the people”, but the agitation of the populists failed to ignite the flame of a peasant uprising.

In 1876 arose organization "Land and freedom", which in 1879 split into two groups.

Group " Black redistribution” headed by G.V. Plekhanov focused on propaganda;

« Narodnaya Volya” headed by A.I. Zhelyabov, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya in brought to the fore political struggle. The main means of struggle, in the opinion of the Narodnaya Volya, was individual terror, regicide, which was supposed to serve as a signal for a popular uprising. In 1879-1881. Narodnaya Volya held a series assassination attempt on Alexander II.

In a situation of acute political confrontation, the authorities embarked on the path of self-defense. February 12, 1880 was established "Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace» headed by M.P. Loris-Melikov. Having received unlimited rights, Loris-Melikov achieved a suspension of the terrorist activities of the revolutionaries and some stabilization of the situation. In April 1880 the commission was liquidated; Loris-Melikov was appointed Minister of the Interior and began to prepare the completion of the "great cause of state reforms". The drafting of the final reform laws was entrusted to the "people" - temporary preparatory commissions with a wide representation of zemstvos and cities.

On February 5, 1881, the submitted bill was approved by Emperor Alexander II. " Constitution of Loris-Melikov” provided for the election of “representatives from public institutions ...” to the highest bodies of state power. In the morning March 1, 1881 the emperor appointed a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the bill; in just a few hours Alexander II was killed members of the People's Will organization.

New Emperor Alexander III March 8, 1881 held a meeting of the Council of Ministers to discuss the Loris-Melikov project. At the meeting, the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev and head of the State Council S.G. Stroganov. The resignation of Loris-Melikov soon followed.

IN May 1883 Alexander III proclaimed a course called in the historical-materialist literature " counter-reforms», and in the liberal-historical - "adjustment of reforms." He expressed himself as follows.

In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local landowning nobles. The clerks and small merchants, other poor sections of the city, lost their suffrage. Judicial reform has undergone a change. In the new regulation on the zemstvos of 1890, the representation of estates and nobility was strengthened. In 1882-1884. many publications were closed, the autonomy of universities was abolished. primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod.

These activities showed the idea of ​​an "official nation"» times of Nicholas I - the slogan « Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Spirit of Humility was consonant with the slogans of a bygone era. The new official ideologists of K.P. Pobedonostsev (Chief Prosecutor of the Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the newspaper Grazhdanin) omitted the word "people" from the old formula "Orthodoxy, autocracy and the people" as "dangerous"; They preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. On practice new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on the traditionally loyal to the throne nobility. Administrative measures were reinforced economic support for landowners.

One of the most important was the reform of local government, known as zemstvo reform. January 1, 1864 was published "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", in accordance with which classless elected bodies of local government were formed - zemstvos, elected by all classes for three years. The zemstvos consisted of administrative bodies (county and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (county and provincial zemstvo councils).

Zemstvos had the right to hire zemstvo doctors, teachers, land surveyors and other employees. For the maintenance of zemstvo employees, there were certain taxes from the population. Zemstvos were in charge of a wide variety of local services: the construction and operation of roads, the post office, public education, health care, and social protection of the population. All zemstvo institutions were under the control of local and central authorities - the governor and the minister of internal affairs. The narrowness of the social base of urban self-government and the strict control over it by the provincial presence made the reform limited. But in general, for Russia, the creation of a system of local self-government in the form of zemstvos played a positive role in solving various problems at the local level.

Following the zemstvo reform in the country, urban reform. In accordance with the "City Regulations" (1870), a system of city elective self-government was established in 509 cities. Instead of the previously existing class city administrations in cities, the city duma, headed by the city government, began to be elected for four years. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of the city duma and the city council. Not all citizens had the right to vote, but only those who corresponded to a sufficiently high property qualification: wealthy homeowners, merchants, industrialists, bankers, officials. The competence of the city duma and council included economic issues: landscaping, law enforcement, local trade, health care, education, sanitary and fire protection of the population.

Since 1864, the country has been judicial reform, according to which a classless, public court with the participation of jurors, advocacy and competitiveness of the parties were approved. A unified system of judicial institutions was created, based on the formal equality before the law of all social groups population. And within the province, which constituted the judicial district, a district court was created. The Judicial Chamber united several judicial districts. As a rule, decisions of the district court and judicial chambers with the participation of jurors were considered final and could be appealed only if the order of legal proceedings was violated. The highest court of cassation was the Senate, which accepted appeals against court decisions. For the analysis of minor offenses and civil claims up to 500 rubles. in counties and cities there was a world court. Justices of the peace were elected at county zemstvo assemblies.

In the 1860s, there were education reform. Primary public schools were created in the cities, along with classical gymnasiums, real schools began to function, in which more attention was paid to the study of mathematics, the natural sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills in technology. In 1863, the university charter of 1803 was recreated, cut down during the reign of Nicholas I, which again secured the partial autonomy of universities, the election of rectors and deans. In 1869, the first women's educational institutions were created in Russia - the Higher Women's Courses with university programs. In this respect, Russia was ahead of many European countries.

In the 1860s and 1870s, a military reform, the need for which was primarily due to the defeat in the Crimean War. First, the term of military service was reduced to 12 years. In 1874, recruitment was abolished and universal military service was established, which applied to the entire male population who had reached the age of 20, without class distinctions. The only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, as well as the youngest son, if the eldest is in military service or has already served his term, were not subject to active service. Recruits from the peasants were taught not only military affairs, but also literacy, which made up for the lack school education in the village.

Giving an assessment of the reforms of Alexander II, it should be noted that not everything that was conceived in the early 1860s was realized. Many reforms have been limited, inconsistent, or left unfinished. And yet they should be called truly "Great Reforms", which were of great importance for the subsequent development of all aspects of Russian life.

On the morning of March 1, 1881 a few hours before his death, Alexander II appointed a meeting of the State Council to discuss the draft, called the “constitution” of M.T. Loris-Melikova. But the death of the emperor prevented the implementation of these plans, the transition to a policy of counter-reforms was historically a foregone conclusion. Russia faced a choice - either the continuation of bourgeois-liberal reforms up to the restructuring of the entire system public relations or, compensating for the costs of the policy of strengthening the estate and imperial foundations of statehood, to take a course towards deep economic transformations.

The reform of 1861 made the peasants free, solving the most important problem of Russian reality, but at the same time, it retained many traces of the old system, which could become an obstacle to the economic development of the country. The change in the legal status of such a large group of the population could not but affect all aspects of life in Russia. Therefore, the emancipation of the peasants had to be supplemented by a number of other reforms. First of all, this affected local government, in which the government tried to involve the public. As a result of the implementation of the zemstvo (1864) and city (1870) reforms, elected self-government bodies were created. Having relatively broad powers in the field of economic development, education, health and culture, the zemstvos, at the same time, did not have any rights in political life. The state also sought to prevent the coordination of the activities of the zemstvos, fearing their possible self-organization into a social movement. And yet, with all the restrictions imposed on the work of zemstvos, they played a very significant role in the development of the Russian provinces. No less decisive changes occurred due to the judicial reform (1864). She, perhaps, most of all stood out from the traditional framework of the Russian political system. All estates, the independence of the court from the administration, publicity, oral and competitive legal proceedings, the participation of jurors - all these principles decisively broke with the traditional foundations of the old judicial system. Therefore, despite a number of subsequent restrictive acts of the government, the judicial system became the first and, perhaps, the only institution in Russia completely independent of the state. In the direction of liberalizing public life, other steps taken by the state also developed: the softening of censorship rules (1865), the granting of autonomy to universities (1863) and even the military reform (1874), which resulted not only in the introduction of universal military service and reduction in service life, but attempts were made to humanize the army. Thus, the reforms of the 60s - 70s. 19th century brought great changes to the life of the country. They allowed Russia to get out of a protracted and deep crisis, significantly accelerated its development, both in socio-economic and political terms. At the same time, it was only the first step on a fairly long path leading to a new model of statehood in Russia. Although absolutism was clearly exhausting its possibilities and more and more often it had to make concessions to the public, it made these movements very reluctantly, as a rule, under pressure from below. Therefore, the success of the reforms of the 60s and 70s. did not receive due completion in the form of a constant movement towards the complete democratization of society. Being a conservative response to the challenge of the time, a reaction "from above", the reforms did not satisfy the public and caused more and more attempts to put pressure on the authorities in order to implement new liberal reforms. The refusal of the government to make these changes led to an increase in radicalism in the social movement, which, in turn, created the conditions for a new growth of the crisis. Contradictions not resolved by the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s were superimposed by new ones generated by the post-reform reality and, thereby, increased the conflict in the Russian state. The revolution was avoided, but it was not possible to prevent it in the future.

Zemstvo reform of 1864 Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they used to say) economy. Honey. assistance in the village was practically non-existent. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know the elementary rules of hygiene. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Individual landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Nobody cared about country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was exhausted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the needs of the liberal public, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established to guide households. affairs: the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, for the organization of food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and the collection of statistical information.

The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were district and provincial zemstvo councils. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

Zemstvo elections were held every three years. In each county, for the election of vowels of the county zemstvo assembly, created. three elect. congress. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatins. land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second congress included city owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant, congress was attended by elected representatives from volost assemblies. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. District zemstvo assemblies elected provincial zemstvo councillors.

As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liber. landlords, the autocracy considered the local nobility to be its main support. Therefore, the Zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvo was not introduced in the Don Cossack Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

Zemstvos have played a large positive role in improving the life of the Russian countryside, in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian provinces began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. Now, when a network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus has developed, a “third element” has appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians have come to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. They were trusted by peasants, councils listened to their advice. Government officials have watched the rise of the "third element" with concern.

Urban reform of 1870 In 1870, following the Zemskaya type, a city reform was carried out to replace the former class dumas, created in accordance with the “Charter of Letters to Cities” of 1785, with all-class elective city institutions - city dumas and city councils.

The right to elect to the city duma was used by persons who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of fees paid in favor of the city, were divided into three curiae. The first curia consisted of a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers who contributed another 1/3 of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. At the same time, each curia elected an equal number of councilors to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of representatives of the big financial and commercial and industrial bourgeoisie in it.

City public self-government was in charge of the decision of households. issues: the improvement of the city, the development of local trade and industry, health care and public education, the maintenance of the police, prisons, etc.

The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the city duma was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs. However, for all its limitations, the urban reform was a step forward compared to the pre-reform organization of urban government during the Ec II. She, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform of 1864 The most consistent transformation of A II was the judicial reform carried out on the basis of new judicial charters adopted in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: the formal equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court; the independence of judges; competitiveness of prosecution and defense; the election of certain judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - world and general.

The magistrates' courts heard petty criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by county zemstvo assemblies, and in the capitals - by city dumas. For judges, a high educational and property qualification was established - not lower than secondary education and ownership of real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles or 400 acres of land. At the same time, judges received fairly high salaries - from 2,200 to 9,000 rubles a year,

The system of general courts included district courts and judicial chambers

The district court was appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered complex criminal and civil cases. Consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of 12 jurors. A juror could be a citizen of Russia between the ages of 25 and 70 with an impeccable personal record, who had lived in the area for at least two years. A rather significant property qualification was also established - possession of real estate in the amount of at least 2 thousand rubles. Lists of jurors approved. governor.

The Court of Appeal for the District Court was the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict handed down by the jury was not allowed.

The Judicial Chamber considered cases of malfeasance committed by persons who had a rank higher than the titular adviser (that is, from the VIII class of the table of ranks). Such cases were equated with state. crimes and obeyed with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate.

The reform established the publicity of trials, which began to be held openly, the public was admitted to them, newspapers printed reports on courts of public interest. The principle of competitiveness of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of the prosecutor - the representative of the prosecution and the lawyer who defended the interests of the accused. In Russian society, there was an extraordinary interest in advocacy.

And although the new judicial system still retained a number of feudal vestiges (the existence of a special volost court for peasants, courts for the clergy, military and senior officials), nevertheless, it was the most advanced.