Religious ideas and scientific knowledge of ancient China. Religious Beliefs of China

Ethnocultural genesis of the ancient Chinese

In the 20s of the XX century. Swedish archaeologist Anderson discovered near the village of Yangshao in Henan province the remains of a Neolithic culture - the later stage of the Stone Age, when people already knew how to make ceramic products. These were the ancestors of modern Chinese. Age of culture Yangshao dates back up to 6 thousand years, its territory coincides mainly with the region of the Loess Plateau. Simultaneously with the Yangshao culture, more precisely by the end of the 4th millennium BC, independent Neolithic cultures arose in the lower reaches of the Yangtze (Southeast China). Over the next millennium, these cultures moved north. And here, on the territory of the provinces of Shandong and Henan, an area of ​​Neolithic cultures takes shape, known as the culture Lunshan, or black ceramics cultures already using the potter's wheel. From the 2nd millennium, the Yangshao culture was supplanted by the Late Neolithic Longshan culture. The overlap of the Longshan culture with the Yangshao culture laid the foundation for the appearance of ancient cities on the North China Plain, from which the history of Chinese civilization began. At the same time, in the upper reaches of the Yellow River and in the coastal region, Neolithic cultures existed that gave rise to peoples whom the ancient Chinese called: “Western Rong” and “Eastern Yi.” In the south at that time there were Neolithic cultures associated with the prehistory of Southeast Asia. In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. The late Neolithic of the Yellow River basin was replaced by the developed bronze culture of the Shang (Yin). In 1027 BC. The Yin state fell under the attacks of the Zhous. Since the Zhou era in Ancient China, the process of colonization and assimilation of neighboring lands and tribes has been developing. This process of synthesis of Chinese civilization lasted quite a long time and ended in the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when a certain spiritual integrity emerged on the basis of ancient beliefs and cults. Later it was reflected in the teachings of Confucius.

The oldest historical era in China is called the era of the Three Dynasties. The First Xia Dynasty has no direct evidence of its existence, although the genealogy of its rulers is known. The next of the Three Dynasties is the dynasty Shan, or Yin. Chinese chronicles contain quite reliable information about her. The Shang-Yin era is evidenced mainly by two sources: inscriptions on the bones of sacrificial animals used by the Shang kings for fortune telling, and data from archaeological excavations of the capital of the Shang kingdom in the last two centuries of its existence (then it was called Yin). The Early Shan civilization was in many respects a direct descendant of the Longshan culture.

Sources for studying the religion of Ancient China

Classical literature consists of ancient works collected and published in their final form by Kongzi (Confucius). These are the five books of Jing and the 4 books of Shu. The first (from the Jing group) and perhaps the most ancient work is I Ching(“Book of Transformations”), a book for fortune telling. Second piece Shu-ching. His books (or rather excerpts) cover a period of time from the 17th century up to BC. Tells about the legendary emperors Yao, Shun, Yu, Hia, Zhau and Shan. Historical events are presented from the point of view of a moral principle called the “mandate of heaven.” It is of great importance for acquaintance with the religious views of the ancient Chinese, their views on public life.

Book of Songs Shi Ching, the third canonical book. It consists of 300 songs selected by Confucius from the richest collection of Chinese folk songs. The first part of the book concerns the national culture, the customs of the country, the life of the provinces and home, private life. The next two parts introduce the life of the royal palace and introduce songs in honor of the founders of the Zhou dynasty. The fourth part contains sacrificial chants and songs in honor of the ancestors. "Shi Ching" is a source about the religion of the Zhou kingdom. But five songs from the fourth part date back to the time of the second dynasty ( Shang-Yin). “Shi-ching” - “Book of Songs and Hymns” was completed by the 6th century. BC.

The fourth canonical book, Lee-ki, for getting to know the religion of China is no less important than the first three. Many works on Li introduce views and customs that date back at least to the centuries of the third dynasty (Zhou). The word "Li" means: rite, ceremony or the totality of all the rules of decency. Among the works on this issue, three stand out in particular: I-li, Zhou-li, Li-ki. Yi-li talks about the responsibilities of various bureaucratic classes, Zhou-li talks about the state system in the Zhou era. Li-ki indicates the duties of each and the general rules of decency, sanctified by custom and tradition.

The fifth book in this group is entitled “Chun-qiu” (Spring and Autumn). This is the chronicle of the appanage principality of Lu, the birthplace of Confucius. It covers the period from 722 to 491. BC. The four books of Shu introduce us to the teachings of Confucius himself (“Lun-yu”, “Zhong-yun”, “Takhio”, “Menzi”).

Among the outstanding sinologists, one should distinguish the English D. Legg, G. Giles, the French E. Biot, E. Chavannes, C. Arlet, L. Vigee, the German R. Wilhelm, the Dutchman de Groot, the Russians A.I. Ivanov, P.S. Popov, V.V. Malyavin, L.S. Vasiliev et al.

Among the recent archaeological excavations and finds in China, one can note items made of ancient Chinese bronze and inscriptions on them, ancient Chinese items made of jade and marble, as well as oracle bones with inscriptions discovered during excavations of the Yin capital.

Neolithic religion. Totemism. Animism

Totemism

The oldest form of Chinese religion. An essential feature of totemism is the belief in reincarnation (D.E. Khaitun). Indeed, the reproduction of the totemic species appears as a sequential reincarnation spirit the ancestor, which could only be an animal, but not a person, otherwise it would be impossible to distinguish a genus from another genus. Reincarnation is a transition, a transformation, from one form to another. The transitional form, as an intermediate stage of the transformation process, combines the features of an animal ancestor and a human. Therefore, images of a half-animal, half-man clearly symbolize who is the totem of this kind. Such archaeological finds from the time of early agricultural tribes, such as the zooanthropomorphic image of a “man-fish” figurine on vessels from Banpo or the sculptural figurine of a “man-tiger” discovered in the Shakotun Cave, are interpreted as evidence of totemistic beliefs in Neolithic China.

As another symbol of totemic reincarnation, one of the most famous Yin bronze vessels is considered, which represents a sculpture of a man in the arms of a tigress with an unambiguous symbolic meaning of marriage. The image represents the belief in the marriage of a spirit (in this case an animal spirit) with a person. From written sources, this belief is associated with a legend about the birth of the famous ancestor of the Yin Xie after his mother swallowed the egg of a divine bird, which means, if we move away from the language of metaphor, a marriage with a certain spirit in the form of a bird, obviously in a dream. The legendary founder of the Xia dynasty, Gun, turned into a bear, and this is possible if the reincarnated spirit of a bear originally lived within him. The ancestor of the Qin family, who later headed the empire, was also a divine bird (a spirit in the guise of a bird). Liu Bang, who became the Han Emperor, was miraculously conceived by dragon when he was born into a peasant family. This echoes Russian stories about the “Fire Snake” who enters into carnal cohabitation with women. Students of Russian village life were even pointed out to those huts where fiery snakes fly and to those women with whom they cohabit. The Fire Serpent (Dragon) visits only women who grieve for a long time and deeply about their absent or deceased husbands. It is typical that his lovers begin to get rich before people’s eyes. In Rus' there were widespread rumors that women gave birth to children from the Fire Serpent. For the most part, these children are short-lived (“as they were born, they went underground”) or are downright dead, also freaks. But, as we see from Chinese beliefs, there are also emperors.

Generally speaking, zooanthropomorphic images and legends about miraculous conceptions may simply be symbols of faith in transformations, “werewolfism,” and the marriage of spirits and humans. Therefore, to substantiate Chinese totemism, attention is paid to such evidence as inscriptions on Yin oracle bones, where the names of some tribes surrounding Yin are found: the tribe of the Dog, Ram, Horse, Dragon, Earth, Well, etc. True, it is not clear what the Earth, the Well has to do with it - after all, these are not animals. The names of ancient Chinese leaders seemingly preserved in various sources - Shun (mallow), his brother Xiang (elephant), his associates Hu (tiger), Xiong (bear) - speak about totemism. But how can brothers - Shun and Xiang - belong to different totemic clans - mallow and elephant? There may also be a belief in personal patron spirits, naugalism based on visionary thinking. In favor of totemism, they point to the taboo, for example, of the bear, pheasant, tiger, and the veneration of the latter. Thus, in the ancient Chinese treatise “Liji” it is written that sacrifices were made in honor of tigers at autumn festivals. However, the veneration of sacred animals is not necessarily associated with totemism. Sacred animals may be associated with gods or mythological subjects. Thus, cats were revered everywhere in Egypt, and when they were dead they were gathered from all over Egypt, and not just within the nome. Overall, it is believed that sinologists who specifically studied the problem of the existence of totemism in ancient China showed quite convincingly that there was totemism in China (L.S. Vasiliev).

Animism

Animistic cosmological beliefs. Characteristic of the Neolithic Proto-Chinese. They believed in numerous nature spirits. Sky and earth, sun and moon, rain and wind, stars and planets, mountains and rivers, an individual stone, tree, bush were in their eyes animate intelligent beings.

Deciphering the ornaments on ceramic vessels of Neolithic China showed their relationship to cosmological symbols: solar signs in the form of circles, lunar signs in the form of “sickle horns”, a running spiral – a symbol of the running of the sun, celestial movement, a serpentine spiral – a symbol of rain, moisture, etc. d.

The existence of the cult of the Sky and the Sun among the Neolithic landowners of China is evidenced by ritual rings and disks discovered by archaeologists ( bi, huan, yuan), usually made from jade. Among the neighbors of the Proto-Chinese, especially in Siberia, such rings and disks were usually associated with the veneration of the sky and the sun. Written sources (“Shujing”) indicate that the most important function of the legendary heroes and rulers of the prehistoric period was to monitor the movements of the sun, moon and stars, accurately determine the days of the summer and winter solstices, the spring and autumn equinoxes, and determine the number of days and months in the year. It is also mentioned here that it was the sun, moon, stars and mountains that were depicted on ceramic ritual vessels. The animistic beliefs of the Neolithic proto-Chinese carried over into the Bronze Age. During the Yin era, animistic cosmological beliefs and the deification of all nature continued to play an important role. This is evidenced by the nature of the ornament on ritual Yin bronze: spiral-shaped curls (“thunder” ornament) clearly had to do with causing rain. The Yin asked the supreme deity Shandi to influence the spirits of heaven and ensure rain and harvest.

During the Zhou era, animism became widespread due to the inclusion of a huge number of foreign tribes into the empire, as a result of which the number of animate natural phenomena simply increased, although most of them were popular only among the inhabitants of a particular area.

Religion in the era Shan (Yin)

The Shang urban-type civilization appeared in the Yellow River basin at about the same time as the Aryans in India, but unlike the Vedic Aryans, the Shang did not have a pantheon of influential gods. There was a Supreme Ancestor Shandi. A lower rank, the role of the highest divine forces among the Shans was performed by the deified dead, the ancestors of the rulers (Vanir) and various kinds of spirits. The connection between the living and the dead ancestors was the core of the social structure of the Shan people. Therefore, they systematically performed magnificent rituals of sacrifice, most often bloody, including human ones. Therefore, war to capture booty and captives was the main occupation of the Shan rulers (compare with the wars of the Aztecs).

“We are sacrificing three hundred people from the Qiang tribe to Ancestor Gen,” says one of the Shang records informing the ancestors about the sacrifice. On mutton shoulder blades and tortoise shells specially prepared for this purpose, along with a notice of sacrifice, requests were written to powerful deified ancestors to influence the spirits of nature or to give people what they asked for with their own power. Human sacrifices were accompanied by orgiastic celebrations (V.V. Malyavin).

Already during the Shang period, the cult of ancestors expanded, which then became the basis of the entire religious system of China. This tendency is manifested in the fact that the Shan rulers, the Vans, were considered as direct descendants and earthly governors of Shan-di and, accordingly, sacrifices were made to them after their death. Thus, in the Anyang settlement, tombs of the Yin kings were found, where there are several burial chambers and a large number of bronze weapons, ritual vessels, war chariots drawn by horses, dozens of carcasses of domestic animals, as well as many bodies of people, most of whom were prisoners of war, brought as a sacrifice to the soul of the deceased king (the rest were servants and associates who went to the next world along with their master).

In the cult of ancestors, the Shan people formed a strict hierarchy. The supreme deity was their closest relative, the legendary ancestor - Shandi. It was he who, taking the form of a divine bird (swallow), miraculously conceived a son Xie, who became the founder of the Shants. True, the legend of Xie's birth is recorded in later Zhou sources. But from the Shan (Yin) inscriptions themselves it is known that all the deceased Vans were called assistants to their ancestor Shandi. The term "di" (divine, sacred) was used in the Shang (Yin) to refer to all deceased rulers, and the term "Shangdi" ("supreme di") to denote the highest deity.

The merging of a great god and a divine ancestor in one person is not new in itself. The Chinese are unusual in another way. If among other peoples the ancestor of rulers was considered functionally simply as a god, then among the Chinese Shandi was considered primarily as an ancestor with all the ensuing consequences from this family relationship. The Chinese reduced “god” to an ordinary human relationship with him; they did not pray to God as a mystical incomprehensible being, but asked him for help and support as a relative - a patron, deceased and therefore supernaturally omnipotent. It was enough to appease the deified ancestor, please him and at the same time inform him where help was needed. There was no need for many temples and priests, as is usually the case when worshiping a great god - they did not happen, just as the Chinese did not have a god standing above people at an unattainable height, above family relations.

The deification of kinship relations by the Chinese could not simply be a consequence of totemism, just as this did not arise from totemism among other peoples. It was a consequence of the originality of the Chinese spirit, which moved every Chinese to a conscious sense of national and social kinship. The Shans looked at the numerous periphery of the Neolithic tribes as potential captives for sacrifice to their deified ancestors. The Chinese hypertrophied ancestor cult can be compared in contrast to Christ, who said: “Who is my mother, and who are my brothers? And pointing his hand to his disciples, he said: Here are my mother and my brothers; for whoever does the will of My Father in heaven is My brother and sister and mother” (Matthew 12:48-50)

The ritual of fortune telling in Shan. I Ching

Judging by the findings of archaeologists who discovered oracle bones at sites of the Longshan culture, mantic rituals were known in China back in the Neolithic era. In Shang (Yin) China, these rites took a central place in the ritual system. The fortune telling ritual was as follows. The fortuneteller made several indentations in a strictly defined order on a lamb shoulder or turtle shell. Then an inscription was scratched onto the bone or shell, containing a question formulated so that the answer was unambiguous (yes, no, agree, disagree). Then, using a heated special bronze stick, the indentations were cauterized. The fortuneteller determined the answer from the crack on the reverse side. Subsequently, this technique (as well as the technique of fortune telling using dried yarrow stems) formed the basis of another system of fortune telling. This system is contained in the “Book of Transformations” ( I Ching). During the era of book burning, it was preserved as a book of predictions. The figures that make up the core of the I Ching are extremely ancient, and this book may be the oldest work. Legend has it that a dragon swam out of the Yellow River and had a pattern of light and dark circles on its back. Fohi took this drawing as a model and drew the following eight figures, which serve as a symbol of various natural phenomena and consist of trigram combinations of three of two lines, one of which is solid, the second is intermittent:

Combinations of them, two trigrams in each figure, give 64 hexagrams (there are six lines in a hexagram), which form the basis of the I Ching text. The text itself is notes on these 64 figures (hexagrams). Each hexagram has a short note attributed to the Yuan Emperor and his son Prince Zhou, the founders of the 3rd Dynasty. The existing system of the Book developed mainly during the Zhou dynasty and, unlike the mantic systems of earlier times, it is called the Zhou Book of Changes (Transformations). In the notes to the I-Ching figures, special attention is paid to the transformations of the figures, and these transformations are brought into connection with transformations in the nature and fate of man. On the basis of this book, it is not the future that is guessed, but it is possible to find out whether a given specific human activity (which is being asked about) runs counter to the life of the universe or is in harmony with it, i.e. whether it brings happiness or misfortune. Many people see in the I Ching the idea of ​​​​the interaction of two principles - masculine and feminine, heaven and earth, tension and passivity, light and darkness, yin and yang. However, the latter words appear only in later additions. Others believe that what idea guided the creator of this strange book will remain, perhaps, hidden forever. But it is known that the fortune telling procedure is mystical in nature. Throughout the entire process of fortune telling, the fortuneteller is in a state of “spiritual wakefulness.” Only concentration of spirit can ensure the correct result of fortune telling - this is a meditative practice trying to establish contact with the invisible forces that determine fate.

For fortune-telling according to the principle of the turtle and the yarrow stem, 7 fortune-tellers were appointed (five by shells, and two by stems). Some fortune tellers interpreted the results of fortune telling, others analyzed and agreed on them. In case of disagreement, preference was given to fortune telling by shells. Fortune telling acted as an objective means for resolving contradictions in the opinions of various representations of social forces.

The position of a fortuneteller in Yin (Shang) was state-important. These were literate people who mastered the first pictographic writing system. In addition, as the Wang's closest assistants, they had to be well versed in government affairs. The number of Yin fortune-tellers is small: over the course of three centuries, 117 names of fortune-tellers have been recorded in Yin fortune-telling inscriptions. In Yin (Shang), not a single socially significant action took place without the decision of these fortune-tellers, be it relocation, declaration of war, foundation of a new city, etc. The rituals of sacrifice were performed by the same persons who performed fortune-telling, since the ritual of fortune-telling could not do without a sacrifice. In Yin, there has not yet been a division of functions between fortune-tellers and priests. Fortune tellers constituted, due to the exceptional importance of fortune telling in making political, social and economic decisions, the subjective basis of government, sufficient for the scale of the Shang (Yin) kingdom.

Kingdom religion Zhou

The aggressiveness of the Shang-Yin state, which needed a constant influx of military booty and prisoners due to the magnificent regular sacrifices, could not but cause resistance from neighboring tribes. One of these tribes on the western borders of the Shan (Yin) state was the tribe Zhou. Around 1027 BC The Zhous defeated the Yin, the last Yin ruler died, and the capital fell. The Zhou people adopted the cultural achievements of the Yin, writing, and bronze casting techniques. And in the next century they expanded the borders of their possessions in the south, north and west. The Zhou state developed a hierarchical system. The most notable titles – gong And hou – worn by the closest relatives of the ruler, who was called the Son of Heaven (Tianzi). Guns and hous granted titles to their close relatives daifu. The lowest stratum of the Zhou aristocracy was shi- “service people” - descendants of noble people along the lateral line. Below were commoners - farmers, from whom the foot army was recruited. There were also slaves.

The Zhou dynasty borrowed from the Shan the idea of ​​a deity - the first ancestor, and declared Shandi to be its ancestor. One of the songs “Shijing” says that the mother of the Zhou ancestor Houji (Prince - millet) conceived after stepping on Shangdi’s footsteps. However, over time, the importance of the Shandi cult began to wane. Along with Shandi is Sky. They coexisted peacefully and in parallel, duplicating each other, and only several centuries later Heaven finally replaced Shandi. The Shandi cult was replaced by two different cults: the cult of Heaven (Tian) and the cult of ancestors in general. The latter does not mean that every dead person began to be deified. But in the houses of rulers and Zhou aristocrats, in honor of their deceased ancestors, plaques with the names of the deceased were displayed on the altars. The Zhou Wang had the right to seven tablets, an appanage prince to five, and a noble aristocrat to three tablets. Sacrifices were made to the ancestors indicated on them, and the Zhou people abandoned human sacrifices. The number of exhibited ancestors determined his position in society and position.

The Cult of Heaven was a completely different phenomenon than the Cult of Shandi. Unlike the ancestor - the patron of Shandi, Sky(Tian) acted as a higher power abstract from the kinship relationship, but again not mystical, but of a completely rational nature, Sky limited to moral and ethical functions. It establishes laws and norms of social behavior. Punishes the unworthy and rewards the virtuous. Good weather or drought, floods, eclipses, comets, etc. - all this is evidence of the approval or wrath of Heaven. The fact that the Chinese country began to be called “The Celestial Empire”, and the Zhou ruler not a descendant of Shandi, but the “son of Heaven”, did not contain a mystical element, these were simply allegories.

The Shandi cult had a tribal nature. In a multifaceted, multi-tribal empire, an abstract cult was needed, suitable for everyone, and that was the cult of Heaven. Only the emperor had the right and duty to perform all the rituals of this cult, since these rituals were of paramount national importance. The Cult of Heaven was not accompanied by either mystical experiences or human sacrifices. There was only a conscious filial duty of the ruler, who understood the need to report to the Heavenly Father and give him, the guardian of the world order, the necessary honors. The cult of Heaven in Zhou also determined the name of the empire – “Celestial Empire” – which appeared at this time.

The Zhou rulers, called the Sons of Heaven (Tianzi), were responsible for the people and for the balance of cosmic forces. The ruler devoted most of his time to performing rituals to bring about rain and ensure the harvest. He played an important role in maintaining cosmic balance. Failure to perform the proper ritual at the appointed time could lead to misfortune, as well as unsuccessful laws and cruelty of officials. Therefore, special persons had to monitor everything and report to the ruler about any emergency incidents in the state: earthquakes, appearances of comets, epidemics, civil unrest - each such event was regarded as evidence of a violation of the cosmic balance caused by violations of the ruler's duties.

Mandate of Heaven theory

The founders of the Zhou dynasty announced that Tian entrusted them to rule instead of the Shang, since the last Shang rulers did not care about the people, and they were the real “people of Heaven.” This theory was called the “heavenly mandate” (Tien-min): the ruler received power from the hands of heaven, but only as long as he retained compassion and justice. The Zhou rulers had the religious title "Son of Heaven" (Tianzi). They were representatives of Heaven on earth and considered themselves to have received a heavenly mandate. But this theory had a downside - it gave rise to the overthrow of the emperor. Therefore, the early Zhou feudal system with imperial rule lasted about 300 years. And in 771 BC. The Zhou ruler was killed and internecine wars broke out between the destinies, which lasted several hundred years, until in 256 BC. The Qin kingdom did not conquer the inheritance of the supreme ruler, putting an end to the Zhou era. By 221 B.C. it conquered all the remaining fiefs and formed a new empire Qin. The English name China comes from the word "Qin".

Rituals in Zhou China

In early Zhou society, mantika gave way to another form of worship. This form mainly turned out to be rituals of sacrifices to Heaven, as well as to the ancestors of the rulers. Fortune-telling at the beginning of Zhou continued to occupy an important place in political and social life, but as the state grew and the structure of the multi-tribal empire became more complex, unified methods of management and organization came to the fore as a political tool, a bureaucratic management corps developed, a large layer of officials, who at the same time The functions of priests were also imputed. The few fortune-telling priests gradually lost their high status, while the priest-officials in charge of other rituals rose higher, occupying an important link in the system of the state apparatus. These "priest-officials", not having temples of great personified gods, were not like priests in the proper sense of the word. They performed ritual functions (for example, calendar and astrological calculations, taking care of the safety of ritual utensils, preparing for sacrifice, etc.) as administrative duties. They did not at all consider themselves “priests”; they recognized themselves as officials when, led by rulers, they celebrated the cult of Heaven or aristocratic ancestors, i.e. ancestors of the rulers of the empire, individual kingdoms and fiefs of Zhou China, making sacrifices to them.

The rite of sacrifice in Zhou China, having displaced mantic rites from the “official” religion, became central and became the dominant form of religious worship. Officials - priests took care of preparing the sacrifice (selecting animals and ritual objects for sacrifice, creating conditions for fasting, ablution, etc.). Moreover, the number of types of sacrifices in honor of ancestors and spirits has increased sharply (there are several dozen of them in Zhou books). The sacrificial animals were horses and bulls of a certain color and age. In rituals, the ranks below are rams, pigs, dogs and chickens. Grain, especially millet, was considered an effective sacrifice. Wine was made from millet and brought to the gods, ancestors, and spirits.

In Zhou, unlike Yin, a strict order was developed in the use of sacrifices. Thus, sacrifices in honor of the ruler’s ancestors were eaten by descendants and distributed to relatives, associates and officials strictly according to rank. If someone was bypassed during distribution, it was a sign of ill-will. This was the case with the philosopher Confucius, who resigned due to this.

In Zhou China, sacrifices to the spirits of earth and water were buried or drowned, respectively.

From the beginning of the Zhou, ritual human sacrifice became frowned upon and almost completely ceased. However, some rulers of the kingdoms in Zhou also resorted to human sacrifices. So, in the kingdom of Qin in 621 BC. 177 people were buried along with the deceased ruler Mu-gun, including three prominent dignitaries (this is described in one of the songs “Shijing”). Excavations of Zhou burials confirm the rejection of human burials, although this is sometimes questioned. However, human sacrifice in the form of political execution was practiced. In 641 BC. In the Song kingdom, the ruler of the Zeng kingdom was sacrificed to the earth. In 532 and 531 BC. In the kingdom of Chu, executions of convicts were carried out as human sacrifices in honor of the land and spirit of Mount Gan. The “Shiji” says that at the turn of the 4th – 3rd centuries BC. in one of the counties of the kingdom of Wei, they annually sacrificed He-bo, a beautiful girl destined to be his bride, to the spirit of the Yellow River. The dressed victim on a decorated wooden bed was floated down the river, and after a few hundred meters the girl drowned - the victim was accepted. But all these examples do not correspond well to the true scale of sacrifices involving political opponents. Let's give a few large-scale examples. Thus, “when in the second year of Daxiang of the Zhou dynasty Wei Jiong was defeated at Xiangzhou, several tens of thousands of his supporters were buried alive in the ground in Yuyu Park, and since then the howling voices of their Gui have been heard in that place at night.” In the eighth year of Dai (612 BC), Yang Yuan-gan rebelled against the emperor, the minister Fan Tzu-gai buried several tens of thousands of people of his clan and his allies alive outside the gates of Changxia. If they did this to their fellow tribesmen, then what about external opponents? One should not think that the ancient Chinese practice of mass destruction of the enemy, morally legitimized by the religious need to worship pagan spirits, disappeared along with the Shang and Zhou. The Russian writer Garin N. (pseud. Mikhailovsky, 1852 - 1906), while in Korea, wrote with horror that the Chinese had recently buried entire Korean villages alive in the ground. Paganism is enduring!

Cult of the Earth ( she)

The third (after the cult of ancestors and the cult of Heaven), generally recognized universal cult was the cult of the Earth. The cult of the Earth was practiced back in the Neolithic era. It is known that altars in honor of ancestors and in honor of the land were located nearby (to the right and left of the van). Addressing his subjects, Wang of Zhou said: “If you obey, I will reward you in the temple of our ancestors, but if not, you will be sacrificed on the altar of she (earth). And your wives and children too.” The altar of the earth was called the altar of she.

The cult of the earth is two-functional: it is associated with the idea of ​​fertility, reproduction, and also with the idea of ​​land as territory. Since the Zhou era, the veneration of she increasingly began to take on the character of a territorial cult. Therefore, a hierarchy of She cults developed: Wang-she, Da-she, Guo-she, Khou-she, Zhi-she, Shau-she. There were cults of the state, a separate kingdom, an appanage, a small village - a community. WITH varying degrees pomp and care, on a small hill near a village, in the center of a county or near the capital of a kingdom or empire, a square altar she raised above the ground was erected, around which trees of different varieties were planted in a strictly defined order: thuja, catalpa, chestnut, acacia. In the center of the altar is a stone obelisk or wooden tablet, sometimes with an inscription. Regularly in spring and autumn, solemn rites of sacrifice were performed on the altar of each such she. In villages, these rituals coincided with spring and autumn fertility festivals. In the centers of destinies and capitals of kingdoms and the entire country, these rituals had even greater significance, personifying territorial unity and its inviolability. The main festival is go-she. It was a universal holiday, and the rulers of neighboring kingdoms were invited to it. The rite of she in the cult of the territory of the kingdoms and the entire country was performed by the ruler of the kingdom or all of China himself. Five days before the beginning of spring, the Zhou Wang, together with the officials who helped him - the priests, went to the “chamber of abstinence”, where he fasted and performed rituals for several days. On the day of the beginning of spring, Wang went out to a ritual, specially designated field and, after making a sacrifice and ritual libation of wine in honor of the she, drew the first furrow in the field with his own hands. Then - dignitaries and officials. Specially selected peasants completed the field. After this plowing, the deity of the earth She settled in the fields, and in the fall he returned to his altar again. It was during the autumn ceremony that abundant feasts were held: with dancing, sacrifices to spirits and weddings.

Sometimes in the cult of the earth the functions were divided: the patron of the territory was called she, and the patron of the harvest was called ji (literally “millet”). These terms were often used in combination with she-ji. To destroy she, especially go-she, meant to destroy the kingdom. Native she, like our ancestors, helped in difficult times. During the days of battles and other trials, the Zhou rulers had with them tablets from the altar of their ancestors and from the altar of She.

The cult of she, like the cult of ancestors, was common to both the upper and lower strata of society.

There was also a solar, lunar and astral cult. Sacrifices were made to the sun, moon and stars.

Cult of fertility and reproduction

In the Neolithic cults of China, where matrilineal forms of the clan collective dominated, the cult of the woman - mother and mother - earth was obviously the main one. Therefore, in art and ritual, symbols of the feminine principle played a central role: cowrie shells, which in their shape were reminiscent of female fertility, and triangles, in their shape also reminiscent of the feminine principle. In Yin and Zhou, female symbols were still in circulation, but their meaning was already secondary. The dominance of patrilineal forms and the cult of male ancestors brought to the fore the masculine principle, as well as the idea of ​​​​the harmonious unity of both principles, male and female. The cult of soil fertility included the ritual of first plowing, which served as a signal for the beginning of spring field work. After the completion of plowing, a celebration was held. These holidays often began with a rite of gender and age initiation. In the ritual, a hat was placed on the boy’s head, and the girl’s hair was pinned up with an “adult” hairpin. An attribute of an adult man was also a belt with a bone needle. From the Shijing it is clear that peasant boys and girls who had undergone the initiation ceremony chose a wedding couple during the spring holidays. But the spring holidays did not end with weddings. The time for weddings came only in the fall, when the second fertility festival was celebrated, even more magnificent than the spring one. During the holidays, great importance was attached to ritual dances and magical rites, including “tigers” and “cats”. Autumn fertility festivals cannot be interpreted as connected only with the earth and its fruits, and the rituals of “tigers” and “cats” cannot be explained only by the wild boars and mice they exterminate. Tigers and cats do this work successfully and do not need ritual assistance, and there is no need to persuade them to honor them either. It is always necessary to clearly indicate what kind of fertility we are talking about (another question is the magical connection of eroticism with the agricultural cult). During autumn weddings, numerous dances in the skins or masks of tigers and cats bring to mind the archaic ritual of human fertility, when the spirit of a totem animal, inhabiting members of the clan - participants in the ritual - contributed to their fertility. By dressing up as “tigers” and “cats,” grooms, and not just shamans, in a magical dance received the spirit of these feline animals, with a strongly pronounced masculine principle (totemic in ancient times). It is the large number of participants (dancers) of these ancient dances during the autumn festivities that speaks in favor of the latter.

Cult of the dead and afterlife ideas

Already in the Yangshao and Lunshan burials, traces of a developed funeral ritual associated with belief in the afterlife were discovered. Weapons, clothing, utensils, production tools, food, etc. were placed in the burial. Shang rulers were buried in huge graves along with a variety of sacrificial objects from bronze and jade to dogs, horses and beheaded people. The orientation of the dead was fixed - head to the west. Evidence that the Yangshao people had either an idea of ​​the “land of the dead,” usually associated with the West, or of the “ancestral home in the West,” where souls returned after death (the Chinese expression “Gui Xi” - “return to the West,” i.e. "die"). G.E. Grum-Grzhimailo spoke of this as evidence of the Western origin of the Chinese. It also turned out that in the Yangshao culture, babies were buried, as in the rest of Eurasia, under the floor of houses in ceramic vessels (Russian “went under the floor”). Apparently, there is some ritual meaning in this, for example, it is possible that the infant soul was given magical powers. [As E. Taylor writes, the Vedda tribes especially valued the help of the spirits of small children in case of misfortunes].

The funeral rites of the proto-Chinese also indicated that they believed in the possibility of resurrection. True, this conclusion was made by I. Anderson based on a special pattern - two parallel jagged lines made in red in black ornament on the funerary utensils of Neolithic burials. The fact that red is the color of blood, and blood is a life-giving element, is too weak a syllogism. More convincing are later excavations in Changsha-Mawangdui in 1972-1974. The conservation of the found body of Princess Dai, with the help of which its amazing preservation was achieved (even the elasticity of the tissues did not disappear), testifies in favor of this assumption.

Archaeological excavations in the Shandingdong cave, near Beijing, showed that the inhabitants of the cave (25 thousand years ago) painted the dead red and decorated them with specially processed stones and shells. Red, the color of blood, had a ritual and magical meaning. It is believed that it is associated with the idea of ​​resurrection, rebirth.

The cult of the dead received further development in the Yin (Shang) era. The social stratification that replaced primitive equality was reflected in the magnificent tombs of rulers with magnificent property and a large number of buried people and the poor graves of ordinary Yin people. But the main thing is that the cult of the dead grew to the cult of deified dead ancestors, which became the center of the Shang religious system. The reasons for this transformation of the cult of the dead are the subject of discussion in science.

The Zhou people adopted the cult of dead ancestors from the Yin and developed a strictly precise hierarchical ceremonial for it.

Soul theory

The outstanding importance of the cult of dead deified ancestors led to the creation of the theory of the existence of the soul as an independent entity during the Zhou era. Each person was considered the owner of two souls. The earliest fragment devoted to this topic is contained in the historical text “Zuo Zhuan” - 534 BC. The fragment talks about souls hun And By, and the soul of Hun is identified with the intelligent, active principle yang It is interesting that it says about the souls of hun and po not only of aristocrats, but also ordinary men and women. Soul By identified with yin After the death of a person, the hun soul turns into a spirit (shen) and continues to exist for some time after the death of the body, and then dissolves in the heavenly pneuma. By becomes a “demon”, “ghost”, “navi” (gui) and after some time went into the underground world of shadows, to the “yellow springs” (huang quan), where her ghostly existence could be supported by the sacrifices of her descendants or dissolved in the earthly pneuma. Hungry Gui, as well as Gui of people who died a violent death, were considered very dangerous. The body acted as the only thread connecting the souls together, so that the death of the body led to their dispersion and death. But the last position is quite late and with it the doctrine of souls hun And By will enter Taoism, making disembodied immortality beyond the grave unlikely. But let's go back to the early days. It is difficult to say when the idea of ​​the underground kingdom of shadows (like the ancient Hades or the Hebrew Sheol) - the “yellow spring” (huang quan) - appeared in China. Apparently, it is very archaic, since the belief in the descent of the souls of the dead into the lower, underground world is widespread among all shamanic peoples (Siberia), dating back to the era of tribal society. The first written mention of the “yellow spring” dates back to 721 BC in the chronicle “Zuo Zhuan”. Belief in the shadow-like ghostly existence of the soul after death was characteristic of the southern (Chu) religious tradition of the Zhan-guo period. Thus, in “The Calling of the Soul,” which is part of the “Chu stanzas” corpus, it speaks not only about the soul’s journey to heaven, but also about its descent into the lower world filled with dangers. The same text speaks of a certain horned underground deity Tubo. Archaeological finds (especially in Changsha-Mawangdui) have made it possible to better understand the content of “Summoning the Soul.” Thus, the spirits of the underworld are also depicted on cracks from Mavandui burials. The underworld is hierarchical: its ruler, Tubo, has servants, assistants and officials. In light of these data, the question arises: when making human sacrifices on She altars, burying them alive in the ground, to whom did the ancient Chinese offer them? The souls of the dead do not need them; they were not cannibals during their lifetime. What remains is the horned Tugo and mother earth, who was made the only addressee, having previously qualified her as the “goddess of death.”

Calendar festivities

They took place according to the lunar calendar. The year in ancient China was originally divided into “business” and “empty” (winter) periods. The first was a time of growth of all living things and labor activity, the second was a time of death of the earth and idleness.

Even at the turn of the 2nd-1st millennia BC. The ancient ancestors of the Chinese distinguished only two holiday periods: the holiday period at the beginning of the business season and the holiday period at the end of the business season. Over time, spring and autumn, summer and winter rituals emerged from these primary celebrations. The new holiday system was based on the dates of the astronomical calendar. The New Year (astronomical) is correlated with the winter solstice; the center of spring rituals became the days of the vernal equinox (mid-spring), the center of autumn rituals became the days of the autumn equinox (mid-autumn). The holiday of the summer solstice (midsummer) appeared.

Judging by the reports of the oldest written monuments of China, the rituals of the calendar festivals of that era were dominated by features characteristic of archaic holidays in general: festive excesses, wearing animal masks, relative freedom sexual relations. In ancient Chinese literature, the concept of “madness” originally referred to a state of festive ecstasy, exaltation - primitive holidays were orgiastic in nature.

In addition to the holidays on the days of the winter and summer solstice, the spring and autumn equinox, there were holidays for the beginning of the agronomic seasons. So, on the first day of spring, the emperor performed the ritual of making the first furrow in the eastern suburbs of the capital. Ceremonies associated with the arrival of autumn were performed in the western suburbs and served as a signal for military competitions and hunting, repairing city walls and executing criminals, because autumn and winter were considered the time of dominance of the beginning of yin and, accordingly, the season of war and death.

The nature of the festivities has evolved over time. Already from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. educated sections of society viewed folk festivals with suspicion, considering them “indecent” and “useless.” From the end of the 1st millennium BC. calendar rituals were subordinated to the state principle of formalization and rationalism.

Winter solstice day (solstice)

It was considered by the ancient Chinese to be the beginning of a new astronomical year (mid-winter). It has been celebrated in China since ancient times. It usually occurs at the end of the 11th month of the lunar calendar. Yin reached its culmination and light yang began to intensify (mid-winter). In ancient times, red beans were eaten on the winter solstice. Beans, according to legend, are a talisman against spirits (at the summer solstice they ate dog meat). Rice dumplings were offered to the patron spirits. The spherical rice dumplings that the Chinese ate on the winter solstice are a symbol of the primordial chaos of Hundun and bear the same name. On the winter solstice, offerings were made to the souls of the dead - rice dumplings, red beans, wine and always pork. They believed that at this time pork gave strength and health. Apparently, the ancient Chinese made sacrifices to the spirits and souls of their ancestors on the winter solstice, as well as on the summer solstice. Even in the Middle Ages, it was customary to celebrate the winter solstice with official ceremonies and rituals similar to New Year's. Partially this tradition survived until the beginning of our century.

The imperial rite during the winter solstice was performed on the longest night of the year, when the dark power of yin reached its maximum. The emperor ascended to the upper platform of a round stone altar south of the capital (in the religion of India, the southern altar is the altar of spirits and dead ancestors). The officials, in loud and slow monotonous voices, appealed to the royal ancestors and Heaven, asking for their support and assuring them of the ruler’s loyalty. The ancestors and deities of the sun, moon, stars, planets, wind and rain were represented by tablets with inscriptions. Food was placed in front of these signs: soups, vegetables and fruits, as well as fish, beef and pork. A young red bull without a single flaw (symbol of yang) was sacrificed to Heaven. His carcass was burned on a special altar. Wine, incense and silk were also donated. The ceremony took place to the accompaniment of gongs and drums. Let us quote the emperor’s prayer to the “Supreme Ruler,” called Te in the prayer:

At the beginning of time there was great chaos, formless and dark. The five elements did not rotate and the sun and moon did not shine. Within this there was no form, no sound - You, O spiritual Lord, appeared in Your greatness and for the first time separated the gross from the subtle. You created the sky; You created the earth; You created man. All things with their ability to multiply came into existence.

O Te, when you separated yin and yang (i.e. heaven and earth), your creation began. You, O Spirit, brought forth the sun, the moon and the five planets, their light pure and beautiful. The vault of heaven spread out like a curtain, and the square earth served as a support for everything on it, and all things were happy. I, Your servant, dare to respectfully thank You and, worshiping, present this petition to You, O You, calling You Lord. You have condescended, O Those, to our prayers, for You treat us like a father. I, Your child, dark and unenlightened, cannot express my feeling of gratitude to You. Thank You for accepting my clumsy speeches. Glorious is Your great name. We offer these jewels and silks with reverence, and, like swallows rejoicing in the spring, we bring praise to Your generous love.

A great feast has been arranged, and the voice of our joy is like thunder. The Sovereign Spirit has condescended to accept our gifts, and my heart feels like a speck of dust. The meat was cooked in large cauldrons and aromatic dishes were prepared. Accept the offerings, O Te, and all people will be happy. I, Your servant, the recipient of Your graces, am truly blessed.

It is clear from the text that this is a ritual prayer; it reproduces the cosmogonic myth of the creation of the world, the transition from chaos, indivisibility to organized cosmic order. Consequently, the ritual aims to magically reproduce order in the new year. But who is this “Spirit” called “Those”? You should turn to the ritual symbolism of the ancient Chinese.

For scientists, the meaning of the symbol of the “tao-te” mask, which is usually the center of the composition of the ornament on ritual bronze vessels, as well as some of the most famous ritual products made of stone (jade, marble, etc.), is a problem. The mask usually depicts the head of a monstrous monster with huge round bulging eyes, powerful brow ridges and large branched horns, usually curved into intricate spiral curves. Sometimes the mask is equipped with the body of a dragon, snake, tiger, and occasionally with the body of a person. Already in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. The Chinese themselves did not know the true meaning of this ritual mask, as scientists believe. Although there remains the option of a taboo that prohibits talking about some creature of the unearthly world, even in our time. Some scientists (for example, L.S. Vasiliev) are convinced that the mask tao-te symbolizes Shandi, on the grounds that the era of proliferation and dominance in mask iconography tao-te coincides in time with the period of intense Shandi cult, and from about the 8th century BC. and Shandi and tao-te quickly leave the stage. Shandi is supplanted by Heaven, and the motive tao-te in art it is replaced by other ornamental motifs of the “Middle Zhou” and “Huai” styles. Less convincing is the argument in favor of Shandi based on the “therioanthropomorphism” of the mask (Greek therio - beast). Zooanthropomorphism is indeed a characteristic symbol of the idea of ​​totemism. But the converse theorem is not true: such a symbol can generally denote the fact of “transformation.” In addition, the head of the mask does not represent the head of any known animal, it is “brutal” in the sense of terrible, fantastic, out of this world. In any case, in Russian literature the version of the mask as a great spirit is ignored, with which the Chinese somehow connected themselves, worshiped him and regularly made mass human sacrifices, which were abolished when this cult was replaced by the cult of Heaven, but still lived in the ancient feeling (archetype, Jung would say) of the Chinese.

Foreign authors also associate the Spirit of Te with Shandi as the ancestor of the Chinese. It is interesting that the emperors were buried on the top of a mountain - a mountain, according to the belief of the ancient Chinese, is a place where spirits dominate. On the last night of the lunar year, not only the Spirit of Te came, but also the spirits of all the ancestors of noble families appeared, and from the time the soul received recognition hun among ordinary Chinese, then so did their ancestors. In the morning, all the ancestors, or rather their spirits, went into their own world.

Civil New Year

Celebrated at the end of winter. The archaic holidays of the New Year were holidays zha And la, the origins of which are lost in the Neolithic cultures of the Yellow River Plain. According to an ancient source, zha it was a time when “all the people seemed mad.” Zha were dedicated to agricultural deities and included blood sacrifices, magical exorcist processions and games. Celebrations la were dedicated to the worship of ancestors and household deities. Both holidays were orgiastic in nature. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. they merged into one holiday la. Holiday date la was counted from the winter solstice on a sixty-day cycle and did not have a fixed position in the lunar calendar. Usually la celebrated shortly before the Lunar New Year. The Lunar New Year holiday did not immediately gain recognition among the people. It was originally a palace ceremony. But by the turn of our era, it entered the consciousness of the ancient Chinese as a great holiday and over the next three centuries it finally absorbed the holiday lu. The Civil New Year (end of winter - beginning of spring) in China was celebrated on the first new moon after the sun entered the constellation “Aquarius” (in the Western tradition), which, translated into the Gregorian calendar, occurs no earlier than January 21 and no later than February 19. The prelude to the New Year's celebrations were rituals on the 8th day of the last month, which went back to the ritual la. Back in the 6th century. AD On this day, ritual processions associated with spirits were organized and sacrifices were made to the ancestors and the deity of the hearth. In ancient times, New Year's festivities continued throughout the first month of the year, and even in the 6th century. On the last night of the month, the ancient Chinese performed a cleansing ritual by lighting the courtyard with torches to drive out evil spirits. At the turn of this century, the holiday lasted about a month and a half or even more. The New Year holiday was common to all levels of Chinese society. A week before the New Year, on the 23rd day of the 12th month, a ritual of seeing off the deity of the hearth, Zaoshen (better known among the people under the names of Zaowan or Zaojun), was performed to Heaven with a report on all the affairs that happened in his home.

Spring holidays

Spring holidays The Chinese were associated with fertility magic, and there was also a meeting between living and deceased ancestors. Already in the Zhou era, the festival of “Cold Food” (Hanshi) and “Pure Light” (Qingming) occupied a central place among the spring calendar holidays. It looked like a holiday known among ancient peoples Fire updates. In the Zhou era, the onset of spring was celebrated by lighting a new fire using a mirror, the old fire was first extinguished, and for some time everyone ate cold food. The lighting of a new fire was the only major holiday of the year, the date of which was calculated by the sun: it was celebrated 105 days after the winter solstice (April 5 according to the European calendar). Over time, this day became known as Qingming. Cold Food Festivals were originally a celebration of love, a time for choosing a bride and groom. On this holiday, boys and girls swung on swings suspended from trees. By our time, they have disappeared from the life of the Chinese. Now the holiday of Cold Food and Pure Light has been reduced solely to the commemoration of ancestors. Qingming is now sometimes called the Tomb Sweeping Festival.

During the holiday, “foreign spirits” also appeared. On this day, the only time a year the souls of women who died from childbirth came to the wells (to drink). Gifts were brought to the restless souls and the souls of “abandoned graves.” In ancient times, they believed in the connection between the souls of the dead and willow. Willow shoots were attached to the gates of the house and ancestors were worshiped in the direction where the branches pointed.

Celebration of the summer solstice (solstice)

Summer Solstice Festival(solstice) falls on the fifth day of the fifth month according to the lunar calendar. Start yang, having reached the limit, gives way to the development of strength yin, dark, deadly beginning. This holiday was also called the holiday of the “true middle”, or also the holiday Duan, i.e. yang High Point holiday On this day there is a free meeting of the earthly and otherworldly, chthonic. Therefore, the fifth month is considered unlucky. In the ancient book “Li Ji” (III century BC) it is written that it is necessary to fast for 5 months, not undertake any business, not punish anyone, not leave the house, not climb mountains. hills. It was believed that a child born on the 5th day of the 5th month would destroy his parents, and marriages concluded in the 5th and 6th months would be unhappy. On the day of the summer festival, wine and meat were offered to the spirits. Gifts to the souls of the dead were also exhibited. Amulets were used as amulets against otherworldly forces. For example, the custom of wearing silk threads of five colors on the arm or chest at noon on the 5th day of the 5th month has existed since ancient times. The spirits were scared away with branches of peaches, willow, and wormwood leaves; fig tree leaves and garlic were also hung out. They carried them on themselves and hung them on the gates of the house. A scroll of red paper with a spell was also attached to the inside of the gate. They believed that herbs acquired miraculous properties during the summer solstice. The water also acquired miraculous medicinal properties. After ablution, water was poured onto the street - this was called “wishing away misfortunes.” Thus healing was attributed to spirits.

In literature of the 2nd century. BC. there is mention of "dragon boats" in the festival of the "True Mean". It was believed that the dragon was the carrier of the souls of the dead from the afterlife. The rite of the “dragon boat”, as well as the rite of “lighting the fire”, was considered in ancient times as a rite of meeting the souls of the dead. "Drumming and torchlight were widely used as a means of attracting souls". But it seems that the ancient Chinese also attracted chthonic spirits so that, by making sacrifices to them, they would receive miraculous healings, etc., while at the same time protecting themselves from harm from them, and then generally seeing them off. This - exorcism ancient.

Early Autumn Festival

7th month according to the lunar calendar. Celebration of the first harvest and women's crafts. It is also a holiday of thanksgiving for the souls of the dead for the harvest. Honoring the souls of the dead began on the first days of the 7th month. During the entire 7th month, the doors of the underworld were open and its inhabitants could go out into the world. This "holiday of the dead" (Zhunyuan) came later. The first mention of it refers to the VI century. AD

Autumn equinox

Mid-Autumn Festival. It falls in the middle month of autumn, or the 8th month of the lunar calendar. The main ceremony took place exactly on the full moon, i.e. evening of the 15th day. They worshiped the moon and made sacrifices to it. The sacrifices were varied, but especially pork. Ancient sources mention orgiastic games and dances of shaman girls under the moon. The “rite of passage”, the initiation of adolescents, was timed to coincide with the holiday, since the state of trance, possession by the spirit, necessary in initiations, is associated with the light of the moon. Sacrifices were made to the spirits and souls of deceased ancestors. They believed that in the 8th month “the graves are opened.” They believed in the connection of the moon with marriage. On the night of the lunar holiday, they begged for a happy marriage. The holiday as a whole is characterized by ecstatic communication with deities (spirits). There was a custom to “climb to the heights.” And, of course, the harvest was celebrated. In ancient myths, Lady Moon was reincarnated as a three-toed toad. Associated with the moon and the hare. Magical properties were attributed to the hare's kneecap.

Double Nine Celebration

The last autumn holiday is on the 9th day of the 9th month (before the start of winter). As with all holidays, the autumn-winter season is characterized by “climbing to the heights.” The climbers drank intoxicating drinks.

Calendar holidays are the time when the Chinese communicate with spirits. Offerings to ancestral spirits maintain harmony between the living and the dead and provide the family with benefits from the ancestors.

Rite of investiture and oath

Investiture (Latin investire “to clothe”) is a legal act and ceremony of transferring a feud, dignity, etc. to a vassal in Western Europe during the era of feudalism. In ancient China, a similar ritual played a vital role in the life of the state, especially in Zhou, imperial China. Everyone who had the right to own an inheritance went through a sacred rite. Confirmation of ownership of the inheritance took place in the royal temple, i.e. temple of the van or his ancestors. During the ritual, the merits of the deceased owner and all his awards, things, lands, people, which the successor took possession of, were listed. This ritual was recorded on ritual bronze vessels with inscriptions indicating the rights and possessions of the owner of the ritual vessel. The social reason for ancient Chinese investiture was a reliable guarantee of the vassal's loyalty to the overlord. Therefore, the investiture ritual was completely immersed in the dark depths of pagan religion with its formulas, sacrifices and oath to the overlord, for the sake of which all this was done.

All political acts such as concluding alliances were also necessarily accompanied by ritual ceremonies, sacrifices and oaths. The oath, included in the ritual rite with a sacrificial offering to the gods, was the center of the political procedure because it served as its sacred guarantee. The power of the guarantee of the oath lay, first of all, in the magical power of the pagan spell, the magical nature of which is clearly visible in the ritual of smearing lips and other ritual objects with the blood of a sacrificial animal. The mysterious power of blood, the “favorite food” of the pagan gods, lay in the fact that the Chinese “gods” necessarily appeared for it, just as, for example, the Indian ones did for a sacrificial drink made from soma. The oath was a rite of exorcism. If we compare it with the pagan oath of the Russians, then the indispensable touch of the Mother’s palm to the damp earth also had the character of a contagious message with the mysterious spirit of the earth. That is why the pagan oath is strong because it, being a magical spell, will result in death on the side of the violator. Then they swear, to assure the other side, what is most dear to themselves. For example, from the Holy Scriptures we learn that the Jews, depending on the situation and the level of the parties being conjured, swore either the life of the king, or the temple, or the altar, the life of a private person, or cattle, or their own heads. Christ speaks against the pagan oath-spell: “Do not swear by heaven..., nor by earth, nor by Jerusalem..., nor by your head...” (Matthew 5: 34-36). Translated into the reality of Ancient China, the Chinese conjured themselves through the one whom they worshiped in the cult of Heaven and the cult of Earth, dooming their heads, with the necessity inherent in magic, to destruction if they violated the oath-spell. This is actually the religious view of the ancient Chinese with their oaths, in contrast to the cultural approach. In religion they believe that spells come true, like signs among those who believe in them - from a religious point of view, a certain spiritual entity is interested in this, wanting to switch and keep people in paganism. In comparison with the ancient custom, even of the same Chinese, an oath is permitted in the Holy Scriptures only as a vow before the Almighty to fulfill it (among the Jews), but since vows to fulfill a task are difficult to achieve, Christ cancels the private oath in order to avoid sin, without affecting the “oath-oath” “social, to protect the God-saved fatherland, but it has meaning only for the believing army and other believing people. In modern pagan cults, an oath also has the character of a magical spell, which can be broken safely for oneself, from the religious point of view of a believer, only by placing oneself under the sacred protection of the Almighty God.

The Chinese people, having escaped monotheism, probably retained in the pagan archetype fidelity to the oath, fidelity to the word. Unless, of course, it happened to them like in Jewish history. In sacred times, among the Jews, every oath was considered sacred, for the Lord was called as a witness. But in later times, Jewish rabbis already taught that if the name of God is not uttered in any oath, then it is not at all obligatory. As a result, deception and treachery spread.

Religious reasons for polygamy

Since the Neolithic, and even in societies with the cult of predominantly male ancestors, family relationships, like all others, were considered from the point of view of the then existing religious norms. With the collapse of clan ties, the patriarchal tendencies of the cult of ancestors affected. The cementing role of the cult of ancestors determined the polygamous nature of the family, since caring for male offspring, through whose line alone the family cult of ancestors could be continuously maintained, required sons, and in a socially guaranteeing number. Therefore, the head of the family, in accordance with his position in society and condition, could have a harem: the main wife, several subordinate wives and concubines. For example, in Zhou China, the emperor was required to have a chief empress wife, three “minor”, ​​nine “three-degree” and twenty-seven “four-degree” wives and eighty-one concubines. In Islamic tradition, the number of wives is determined by the Prophet Muhammad.

Concern for the cult of ancestors and the power of the clan, and not just sensual - carnal diversity, dictated family polygamy. To clearly explain, polygamy (harem) with “safety measures” is an image of a complete misunderstanding of the socio-religious meaning of a polygamous family. Obviously, this meaning, this goal justified in the historical context the inevitable costs of a polygamous family. And they are great: envy, jealousy, hatred among wives and concubines in their desire to gain the favor of the head of the family. All this complicates religious feelings in the family, makes common family prayer impossible, and by this alone dooms the women of a polygamous family to external, formal religiosity. In one of the songs “Shijing” there are the words: “How there is a rumor about our harem - I could not tell it. If I could tell it, there would be so much shame and evil.”

The practice of sororate somewhat mitigated the disadvantages of a polygamous family. The sororate consisted in the fact that, together with the officially betrothed bride, her younger sisters and other younger relatives moved into her husband’s house as wives and concubines - after all, they were not strangers.

Sororate is a characteristic feature in the ancient tradition, a sign of the thoughtfulness of the polygamous family structure. But he, of course, could not rid her of the hostility inherent in her very nature. Sororate could only soften relations in a polygamous family due to family feelings. But family feelings cannot overcome either love feelings for the head of the family, or the desire for closeness to him due to the desire to ensure the will of the head towards her son, and not another, in terms of inheritance. This is of particular importance in conditions where there was no compulsory primogeniture, when the eldest son was appointed heir. The head of the family could appoint any of his many sons as heir.

The regulation of the number of wives and concubines is not caused only by material possibilities, as is commonly believed. But since regulation, as is clear from historical materials, is “tied” to the hierarchy of social ranks, it is clear that for stable order and peace in society, lower clans should not be more numerous, with a superior number of male sons, than clans higher in the organization of the state . Abandoning polygamy in a militarized society is tantamount to abandoning the cult of ancestors in the sense that the ancestors will receive less solemn honors if the social rank of the clan is reduced or will be left without them altogether if the clan is destroyed.

Polygamy in a family-clan system placed high demands on female members of polygamy. The free behavior of a wife or concubine is fraught with the appearance of sons from representatives of other clans, which violated the clear division by rank and status in the system of government and served as a reason for unrest. Whether it is realized or not realized in a moment of emotionality, the violation by female members of a polygamous family of strict moral regulations objectively leads to the erosion of the clan, the power of which originally served the well-being of the family cult of ancestors, and leads to the suppression of the religious roots of the family. The notorious sense of property plays only an accompanying role in the conditions of a clan society, which originally arose from the cult of ancestors and exists thanks to it. Therefore, the correct interpretation of ancient evidence about the facts of promiscuity of women in antiquity (for example, an episode in “Zozhuan”, recorded in 599 BC) is to understand them as exceptions to the rule, associated with the remnants in the minds of the image of a tribal pre-patriarchal society.

The clan structure of society is “interested” in the polygamous type of family precisely because of self-preservation. All kinds of socio-moral arguments in favor of a polygamous family do not so much justify it directly as cloud it, hiding its socio-political significance associated with its religious basis in the cult of ancestors. But even with the “drying up” of the religious root, the socio-political motivation for polygamy in modern clan society remains.

Magic

While among the Yin-Zhou aristocracy the rituals of the official cult, which were rational in form, dominated, among the common people the magic of cults related to the urgent needs and tasks of the population was highly developed. Since great gods did not arise in ancient China, as well as their servants, all tasks were addressed to the world of spirits and intermediaries between spirits and people - shamans. There was a technique of various magical rituals depending on the goals. For example, to reincarnate a spirit into the body of a shaman, the ritual of dressing in the skins of the corresponding animal was used. Thus, during the autumn holidays, ritual dances were held, during which the shamans dressed themselves in the skins of tigers and cats.

Chinese female shamans played a magical role in the cult of earth fertility. One of these roles was the rite of "exposing shamans" in order to eliminate the drought. The legend tells of how ancient time Ten suns rose simultaneously, drying up all living things, and then the shaman Nyu-chow in a dark dress was exposed to the scorching sun and died. She could not help but die - she was exposed precisely for this purpose for such a time that she would die. Hence the dark dress, and even they were taken out into the field naked. It was a ritual zhi- incarnation of the demon of drought han-bo who had a feminine nature. Therefore, this ritual was performed by female shamans.

Shamans were able to instill in themselves, embody spirits in themselves. So, in the body of a female shaman, the demon of drought was exposed to the murderous and tormenting rays of the sun. This exorcism is reminiscent of an African fetish in which nails were driven until he fulfilled his desire. In this case, the “fetish” was alive, and he suffered until the drought subsided. If this did not happen, no matter how long the living shaman stood in the field under the sun, then the last resort remained - to burn the incarnate demon, which is what they did. Self-sacrificing shamans went to self-immolation. If the result was still not achieved, the drought did not subside, then this meant that the shaman did not have the power to embody the demon of drought in herself han-bo. The interpretation of the ritual “exposing a shaman” as a sacrifice to a demon leads to the fact that the demon is a sadist and he likes the slow painful death of the victim under the rays of the sun. The Yin tradition of exhibiting shamans was elevated during the Zhou era into a centrally regulated ritual in the event of a general drought. There were special officials zhiboshi, who performed the ceremony of exhibiting shamans in case of drought. Ritual self-immolation of shamans was also practiced later, in the Han era. Starting from the Han era, men tried to adopt this function of self-immolation for women to drive out the demon of drought. Back at the end of the 1st century AD. such attempts have been documented. But for a man it is more difficult, since an additional ritual of transvestism was necessary.

In Yin China, according to a tradition leading to matriarchy, female shamans played a dominant role in the field of magic. Only with Zhou did the term appear nan-wu(“male shaman”). There was already a division in Zhou: female shamans performed the ritual zhi, male shamans drove out the spirits of disease. In case of mourning, male shamans were invited for the ritual of the ruler (van), and female shamans were invited for the ritual of the wife of the van. Already in the most ancient times, as evidenced by surviving images, the Chinese attached magical meaning to the fusion of masculine and female organisms. This erotic magic goes back to the depths of totemic times. Subsequently, this type of magic began to be theoretically conceptualized with the advent of the concept of Yin Yang, until finally it assumed prominence in the dogmas and cult rituals of the Taoist-Buddhist sects in the form of Tantrism.

Mantika

As stated, mantika in Yin played a leading role in state and public affairs. Later in Zhou, the role of mantika began to weaken at the state-social level in the complex structure of an ethno-heterogeneous large empire. But in the sphere of private life, mantika merged with magic and filled all aspects of life in such a way that it became the specificity of the Chinese way of life, in contrast to the “exhibition of shamans” inherent in many ancient religious cultures, for example in Mesopotamia.

Already in ancient times, the interpretation of dreams was widespread in China, as evidenced by the Shijing songs. By the end of the Zhou, fortune telling was practiced in ancient China by many thousands of practitioners who had developed a wide variety of uses. In Zhou, geomancy (feng shui) became widespread - the doctrine (and corresponding practice) about the correct choice of a place for construction, a structure, be it a house, a temple or a tomb, a resting place. At the beginning of the Zhou, it was no longer possible to choose a place for burial, whether for mere mortals or noble aristocrats, without fortune telling. Common people were to be buried on plains, nobles on hills, and emperors on mountain tops. The hierarchy of burial places corresponded to the hierarchy of levels of existence of souls after death. In the most ancient times, it was believed that ordinary people did not have a rational soul Hun but only had a soul By, which went into the underground kingdom of shadows. While the soul Hun turned into a spirit.

Ritual Feng Shui specifically identified a sacred mountain for burials. Even if an artificial hill was simply erected over the emperor’s tomb, the location and the hill itself were still determined by the geomancer. Since the Zhou era, not a single significant building has been built in China without the help of a geomancer. A fortune-telling ritual was performed and the geomancer made his decision on the basis of ancient fortune-telling books, primarily the I Ching. Literally everything was subject to geomantic regulation: the size of the structure, shape, orientation, layout, day of construction, etc. A developed geomantic cult was already present at the beginning of the Zhou.

Mantles were used in weddings. Before marriage, a mantic ceremony was performed on the part of the groom (“Shijing”). Fortune telling also helped when the family name of the concubine was not known. Since in China from ancient times to the present day, marriages between namesakes were strictly prohibited (in accordance with the rule of clan exogamy), the possibility of marriage in the event of clan uncertainty can only be decided by the ritual of fortune-telling. The ritual of fortune telling permeated all parts of the wedding ritual.

There were many methods of fortune telling. But the most authoritative, specifically Chinese methods are fortune telling on turtle shells and later on yarrow stems. Divination on turtle shells is briefly described in the section “religion in the Shang era.” Fortune telling on yarrow stems transformed into fortune telling with sticks (sticks instead of stems). Let us briefly describe the procedure for fortune telling on yarrow stems (sticks).

One was taken from a bunch of 50 stems, and the remaining ones were divided into two parts by an involuntary movement of the hand. The two beams received were taken in hand. Then one stem was taken from the bunch in the right hand and inserted between the little finger and ring finger of the left hand. Four stems were removed from the left hand until there were less than four stems left in it. Then the same operation was done with the stems of the right hand. As a result, five or nine stems should have remained on both hands. So they got the first "change". Subsequently, we worked with the remaining 40 or 44 stems, ultimately obtaining 8 or 4 stems, which determined the value of the second “change.” Three "changes" constituted one feature of the hexagram. The 9 and 8 obtained as a result of fortune telling are considered large numbers, and 5 and 4 are considered small numbers. If, as a result of three changes, two large and one small numbers are obtained (for example: 9,8,4; 5,8,8), this level is written as a continuous line. Two small and one large numbers give the level, which is indicated by a dotted line. Three small numbers give the next level, and three large numbers give another level. To construct a six-part whole hexagram, a similar procedure is repeated six times. Each step in the procedure has a strictly defined symbolic meaning. Only the first division of the beam into two parts by an involuntary movement of the hand is considered accidental - at this moment a connection with the cosmos opens.

Witchcraft in Ancient China

In ancient China, there were men and women who knew how to “summon and conjure Guy And shen" and then "use them." Influencing good spirits and deities - “religious magic”, otherwise white magic - is the activity of clergy. The use of spirits to harm people is “black magic”, “witchcraft”. IN Chinese sources not a single expressed doubt or disbelief in the reality of witchcraft and the effectiveness of its consequences was found.

Anyone with the will and knowledge could practice witchcraft in China. But already in time immemorial, black magic was considered a terrible crime, punishable by death, along with those who “create heretical music, formal clothing other than prescribed, strange inventions and strange instruments that confuse the people.” “Those who are guilty of unnatural behavior, who utter heretical speeches and thereby give rise to disputes, who have comprehended the wicked and become experts in it, who follow the wrong and are imbued with it - all of them are subject to death.” “The same should be the punishment for those who sow doubts among people by misusing Guy And shen".

Witchcraft using reptiles and insects

Since ancient times, Chinese sorcerers and witches have used them for their dark purposes. gu. “On the fifth day of the moon (the hottest time of the year) they collect all kinds of reptiles and insects, no larger than snakes and no smaller than lice, and put them in a vessel so that they devour each other; the last creature remaining alive is preserved and released on people so that it kills them. If a snake survives, they call it a snake - gu; if a louse survives, they call it a louse - gu; she devours the entrails of her victims and they all die.”

There are also "flying poisons" One is called "life-sucking" and the other is called "golden caterpillar". “Volatile poison” gets into food and drink. When the food enters the stomach, the ghost comes to life inside the person and swells him until he bursts and dies. The Golden Caterpillar is a golden-colored caterpillar that feeds on silk. She can attract the fortune of her victims to a person and thereby make him rich. If you collect its droppings from the “golden caterpillar”, dry it and grind it, then a small amount of powder put into food or drink will kill the one who eats it; then the caterpillar will be able to take what it wants and will wear what the victims previously owned. To force the insect into submission, it is influenced through spells and other witchcraft practices.

Gu implies the action of otherworldly creatures, or ghosts, which, changing their own form, easily turn into a wide variety of creatures, and their victims are not able to guess their true appearance.

Witchcraft using the human soul

The sorcerer acquires the human soul or even part of it through the appropriation of certain parts of the human body, especially those organs that are most rich in spiritual or vitality. Then an artificial human figure is created so that the soul can move into it, and the sorcerer completely subjugates it with the help of magical formulas and spells. As a result, the created being obediently and blindly does everything that he is told. “For this purpose, the insides are most often cut out, from a pregnant woman - the fetus, and from an innocent, unmarried girl - the hymen or something like that.” “Either they steal people’s eyes and ears for these purposes, or cut off their arms and legs; then they make a statue of a person from wood or clay and, placing it on the ground, perform witchcraft practices on it to make it come to life. Others find out the year, month and hour of a person's birth and lure him into a mountain forest in order to deprive him of his life. qi and get both souls hun And By) in order to make them their ghost servants."

The bones of the dead were used for witchcraft. Witches collect the bones of children in graves, and then call their souls into their homes, calling on the spirit of a child to kill some person. Moreover, they grind the bones of this child into powder and add the powder to that person.

Witchcraft through the souls of objects

Lifeless objects are actually animate, according to the Chinese, especially if they have a human or similar form. Anyone can practice the art of witchcraft with their help. All that is required is to hide some image or any thing in the victim’s house or near it so that the soul of the object contained in it begins to act. Statues can have black power. These could be images of the victim, as was the case with the Chinese emperors. In Chinese practice, there was also a wooden figurine of a child in red clothes, with a red ribbon around his neck, which he pulled with both hands, as if he wanted to strangle himself. She was found in a copper basin of water under a bench in the house of a sick child.

Masons and carpenters, hiding a small figurine made of wood or lime in the wall, under the floor, on the rafters, filled the house with all kinds of ghosts.

Black magic uses fragments of human bone, for human remains are highly animated.

In order for the souls of animals to serve sorcerers, they used the bone of a cat, goose, dog or chicken.

They hid two small, barely noticeable dolls in a wedding veil, or even simply wove a few scraps of fabric into the likeness of an image of a person, and from the moment the young couple ascended to the wedding bed, quarrels and discord arose between them.

They put a piece of peach tree in the grave of another person's ancestors in order to violate it fenshui and undermine the prosperity of the family, for the soul of the ancestor, staying in the grave, will lose peace and will not protect the descendants. In Europe, lead plates with inscriptions were placed in the grave.

Other ways of witchcraft

In ancient China there were "soul stealers" who stole the souls of those sleeping healthy people and placed them in the bodies of the sick, from which they recovered. To do this, the sorcerer hung several dozen shen And Guy and dressed in a woman's dress, performed a dance gan and muttered spells, accompanying them with blows on the gong and drum. When night fell, he made a lamp out of oiled paper, went out into the field and in an indistinct voice called the soul. The soul of the soundly sleeping neighbor obeyed and came to him.

It was possible to take the soul from a living person in other ways. So, they painted or smeared with black the face of the sleeping person, and the wandering soul, returning, did not recognize its owner.

The sorcerer placed sacrificial utensils near the bed of a sleeping person, the soul took the victims for funeral, decided that the person had died and left, causing real death.

Witchcraft in ancient China was the common property of the religion of both the lower and higher strata, both the people and the nobility.

Demonology

Belief in spirits and the cult corresponding to this belief is the most archaic layer of Chinese religion, equally characteristic of the common people and the imperial court, in the most ancient times and in later times. The central doctrine of all Chinese cosmology, philosophy, psychology, theology and demonology is precisely that shen make up yang, A Guy make up yin. Gui in ancient Chinese mythology, the soul (spirit) of the deceased. With the spread of Buddhism, "gui" became the common name for demons and inhabitants of hell. The guis of a drowned man (shuiqinggui) and a hanged man (diaojinggui) were distinguished; eaten by a tiger who walks with the tiger until it eats the other (laohugui); on the river, luring people into a boat (zhugangui); fiery (hogui); hairy (maogui), waiting for its prey (most often children) at the crossroads; hungry, sending illnesses in order to eat food for the sick (eguy); died in prison from starvation (banfanggui), etc. In most cases, however, Guy- this is the restless soul of a person who died a violent death or a suicide who was not buried in the family cemetery. It was believed that the guy was afraid of a scream, a sword with which many people were hacked to death (such a sword was put in the bed of a sick person or hung with a calendar in a wedding palanquin), afraid of spit, urine, reeds (it was tied to the bed of a sick person and to the body of a bride going to her husband’s house ), is afraid of the peach tree (shamans used a peach branch to ward off illness), and various amulets. Gui were usually depicted with a pointed head.

Shen in ancient Chinese mythology corresponds to spirits opposed to evil spirits - Guy. There were sacrifices to heavenly spirits: tian-shen. Heavenly spirits were associated with Wu di (“five heavenly sovereigns”). 1. Lord of the East Tsang-di (“green sovereign”), i.e. a spirit named Ling-Wei-yang, whose embodiment is considered to be Qing-long (“green dragon”), a symbol of the east. 2. Lord of the south - Chi-di (“red sovereign”), i.e. a spirit named Chi-biao-nu (“red flame”), whose embodiment is considered to be Zhu-qiao (“red bird”), a symbol of the south. 3. Lord of the center Huang Di (“yellow sovereign”), i.e. a spirit named Han-shu-nu (“swallowed the rod”), the embodiment of which is considered to be a unicorn qilin- symbol of the center. 4. The Lord of the West is Bai-di (“white sovereign”), i.e. a spirit named Zhao-ju (“calling and repelling”?), the embodiment of which is considered to be Bai-hu (“white tiger”). 5. Lord of the North Hei-di (“black sovereign”), i.e. a spirit named Se-guang-ji (“record of harmony and light”?), whose embodiment is considered to be xuan-wu (a turtle entwined with a snake). Wu-di used as a designation for impersonal, abstract, spirits of the five elements: wood, fire, earth, metal, water. On earth these five elements correspond to wu-shen(“five spirits”).

If yang And yin constitute Tao - the order of nature, then shen And Guy are the forces through which the Tao functions. All actions that contradict Tao - “unnatural, incorrect” - are designated as se And yin. Yin symbolizes “excess, transgression of limits.”

Actions that are contrary to the natural order se And yin, spirits can also perform. If they come from people, then every person is obliged to fight them, to eradicate them. The natural duty of rulers and officials is to put an end to them even in speech and thought.

If such actions are performed by spirits, then one should protect oneself from them with the help of good spirits and deities, spells, or one’s own strength through skillful tricks.

Gui qi are the "actions of ghosts". Se - "ghost," ghostly. The activity of spirits is also called sui. Everything "sinister, unfavorable" was denoted by the word Xiong. Opposes the word ji- "happiness" bestowed by good spirits shen and deities, especially as a reward for the sacrifices they make. The harmful and pernicious action of ghosts is often expressed by a hieroglyph yao. But no word with a similar meaning occurs as often as se.

Sometimes “Heavenly misfortunes” (tian-tsai) or “misfortunes sent down (jian) by Heaven” are also mentioned, i.e. disasters sent by the highest natural force through the spirits.

The omnipresence and multiplicity of ghosts in ancient Chinese religion is striking. And this should be remembered, because, as the classics of religious studies write, “the present of the Chinese is practically their past, and their past is their present.”

Ghosts of mountains and forests

Kui- One-legged monsters with human faces belong to this class. Mentioned in particular by "Shujing". Wang-liang. These are mountain spirits (jing), which, imitating the human voice, confuse people. Wan-liang, according to Chinese experts, are identical to the spirits that disguised spellcasters expel from graves during burial.

They look like humans in the face, but monkeys in the body, and they can talk. “Mountain xiao are found...everywhere. They have one leg, turned out in the opposite direction, so they have three limbs in total. Their females love to paint themselves with red cosmetics...” Mountain xiao one zhang (ten feet) tall are giants. They catch frogs and crabs, fry them on people's fires and eat them. If people attack them, they send fever to people. Because the xiao nothing more than gui and mei, they are widespread everywhere. They are only afraid of the sound of bamboo bursting in the fire. There are many other spirits in the mountains. Big spirits live in big mountains, small spirits live in small mountains. Although they were endowed with a semi-bestial appearance, they never lost their human features; the Chinese were convinced that they were descended from people (dead). If a person comes to the mountains who does not know how to protect himself from them, he will not escape harm or death. He will definitely get sick, be injured, or see lights and shadows, or smell a strange smell, or a tree will fall in the complete absence of wind, or rush into the abyss, losing his mind, etc. You can travel to the mountains only if absolutely necessary, in the third or ninth month, because during these months the mountains are accessible on a favorable day and hour. Before this, you should fast for seven days and abstain from everything base.

It is interesting that “mountains give rise to xiao-yang(owls and goats?).”

Ghosts of water

Like mountain demons, they were endowed with anthropomorphic features. Shui Gui, water spirits, are the spirits of drowned people. They can be released, but only if they provide a replacement. Often people do not want to save a drowning person or, in general, any person whose life is in danger, for fear that the spirit of the deceased person, eager to find a replacement, will then haunt the person whose compassion doomed him to further underwater slavery. Water spirits are strange creatures that chase after human lives.

Demons of the Sea

Tao nyao po- the spirit of a woman, the wife of a sailor, who drowned herself because he treated her cruelly. Hai heshan, “sea monk” (head like a Buddhist monk). For both the expulsion of a female demon and the expulsion of other sea demons, each junk has a person specially taken to perform the dance of expelling the demon. The Chinese call such dancers saving a ship bu tik kho; in good weather, they do the usual work of a sailor. This powerful dance requires preparation and practice, for unless it is performed properly it will be of no use. A sailor who masters it receives an additional salary.

Demons of the earth. Fen-yang

They were represented in the guise of a ram or a goat. Confucius once said: “The life force of water is jasper, the life force of earth is a ram, so its liver must be made of earth.” For the ancients, earth was one of the four elements (fire, water, air, earth). The ancients associated the ram with the grave; there is evidence that in the third century people believed that rams and goats ate the buried. "Fen-yang" (demon) can be translated as "ram from the grave." Fen-yang creatures do not differ by gender.

“The spirits living in the earth do not like the earth to be disturbed and dug up. It is better to choose favorable days for digging ditches and plowing fields” (“Lun Heng”, chapter 24). When someone dug the earth, the spirits were sure to take revenge on him. These spirits are called di sheng And tu sheng- "spirits of the earth and soil." In ancient times, they were also believed to live in objects connected to the earth, such as human homes, dilapidated buildings, corners and secluded nooks. Such ideas persist in China to this day and are an integral part of folk religion. Spirits tu sheng called tai sheng also "fruit spirits". Their curse can extend to already born babies, since they, like plants, depend for their growth on the life-giving earth. It is written that a pregnant woman “cannot be present at the start of any work related to the repair or construction of buildings or digging up land.” “Repairs in a neighbor’s house or your own, the movement of the earth harm qi baby, destroy his body and even threaten his life. Women expecting a child should under no circumstances look at repair work, at how they knock and pound on anything, and at how they dig; they should protect themselves from such spectacles.” It is dangerous to drive a nail into a wall, because you can hit the spirit of the earth living in the wall, and then the child will be born crippled or blind in one eye. Before being released from the burden, you should under no circumstances move heavy objects in the house, since the spirits of the earth like to settle in such things that, due to their heaviness, are rarely rearranged. Tai Shen cause cramps, anxiety and other painful manifestations to which young children are susceptible.

There are few creatures like gnomes guarding treasures in Chinese demonology. There is a description of the so-called “heavenly roe deer” (“heavenly musk deer”). These are corpse demons jiang shi. People who cannot get out of collapsed mines turn into them. If for ten or even a hundred years they feed on the breath of the earth and metals, their bodies do not decompose. And although they do not seem to be dead, their material substance is dead. If jiang shi a lot, people in the mine will never be saved.

About the spirits of the earth, it is written in Zhou Li: “During the summer solstice, the heads of clans appeal to the spirits of the earth ... in order to avert misfortune and death from the state.” As you can see, the days of calendar pagan holidays cannot be reduced to the meaning of solar cults, they also have a pronounced chthonic aspect, an appeal to the spirits, demons of the earth.

Demon Animals

In addition to the fact that people can take the form of animals both during life and after death, animals can turn into people, and only in the bodily sense, no “rebirth of the soul” occurs. Such ghost animals are no different from ordinary animals, except perhaps for their obvious aggressiveness and malice, thanks to which they become involved in the kingdom of demons. Not having a human soul, physically they are quite suitable for the role of a totem animal - a totem.

The soul of a deceased animal can take on the form and appearance of this animal, but it can, of course, be elusive to hunters and animals.

The souls of mammals, birds, fish, and even insects migrate into people, thereby bringing upon them illness or madness. In addition, the souls of animals leave their corporeal shell and disturb the peace of houses and villages. Old animals are the first to become demons in human form. Similar views affected almost all animals that played any role in the life of the Chinese. The ideological source of this belief is the concept yang And yin, according to which the body and soul of animals and people are cut from the same principles yang And yin, of which the entire cosmos consists.

Demon Tigers

In China, the most tough and treacherous representatives of tigers are classified as cannibals. However, the Chinese explain it not by the fact that a tiger, having once tasted human flesh, cannot stop, but by the fact that the spirit of the last victim it ate prompts the tiger to search for its next victim. The human soul, which attracts a cannibalistic predator in search of new prey, is called chang-gui, “the ghost of the one who lies underground,” i.e. victims. “When a tiger kills a person, he is able to make the body stand up and take off its clothes, after which it devours him” (“Yu yang za izu”). Chang-gui can only be freed if he finds a replacement for the tiger.

Werewolves

In addition to the fact that wolves are man-eating werewolves, the Chinese believe that a wolf can turn into a beautiful girl and marry people, which usually ends badly.

Weredogs

It is very rare for dogs to act as werewolves, but there are several such accounts. With the same diabolical intentions as wolves, dogs take on human form in order to satisfy their sexual lust with maids and wives. To distinguish a demon from a real husband, a test was carried out using blood.

In addition, everywhere in China there is a belief in a werewolf dog. tian gou"Heavenly Dog", a bloodthirsty cannibal monster that devours the liver and blood of people. In Japan the situation is exactly the same. In Chinese calendars, the Heavenly Dog is depicted as a demon prowling in different directions of the world depending on the time of year, solstices and equinoxes.

Were-foxes

Were-foxes called various diseases. Associated with the moon, they turned people into lunatics. Under human form they got married and also had relations with girls who, according to legend, became pregnant. According to ancient beliefs, the fox is able to cause fire by striking it with its tail and is an arsonist.

Foxes in China were always brutally persecuted, smoked out of the hole along with all their offspring, and then burned. The ability of foxes to turn into people was explained by the fact that foxes, penetrating into old graves and tombs, come into contact with the bodies of the dead. And also by swallowing amulets or casting spells.

Pets in demonology

There are relatively few stories about werecats in Chinese literature. But the Chinese have long believed in the existence of witches who use werecats for their purposes. They believed that after death, some people were able to turn into cats and take revenge on those who persecuted them during life.

Horse also, in stories, it can be a ghost of indescribable appearance.

The Chinese believed in the ability donkeys take the most incredible forms and chase people.

Goat ghosts And ram ghosts, according to ancient Chinese ideas, belong to the demons inhabiting the earth and are called fen-yang. The story is about a ghost goat from the high mountains, drunk on wine.

Pigs in Chinese demonology they are endowed with the same traits as foxes and dogs. The most evil and cunning individuals can turn into women and charm the male sex. One of the stories tells of Li Fen, who once on a full moon day walked around the courtyard of his mountain monastery in the moonlight and played the lute. The gate was opened by a girl of incomparable beauty. They pulled down the curtains. The next morning we woke up with the rooster crowing. In the end, she appeared in the form of a pig, staring at Li Fen with an evil gaze.

Cow also, in one of their stories, turned into a ghost. The peasant buried the old cow, waiting for her to die naturally. The next night she appeared at the gates of his house. The Chinese believed that pets could turn into ghosts as long as their bodies remained intact.

Thus, sacred animals (cats, goats, rams, horses, cows, etc.), symbolizing gods in Egypt, among the Celts, Germans and other religions of Europe, shared the fate of ghost demons in Ancient China.

You can read in detail about the belief in spirits and their cult in ancient China in the book by Ya.Ya.M. de Groot “Demonology of Ancient China” and in the book of the famous writer Gan Bao “Notes on the Search for Spirits” - one of the oldest and most famous monuments of Chinese literature of the 3rd-4th centuries AD, which contains legends from the time of the beginning of the Zhou.

Ritual symbolism

In ancient Chinese religion, ritual symbolism, as in other religions, occupied an important place, but the nature of ritual symbolism in Ancient China was noticeably different from the religions of other peoples. Ritual iconography was dominated not by personified deities, but by more or less abstract symbols, which was due to the absence of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic gods in the ancient Chinese religion, as was the case, for example, in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Rome, Greece, and India. The Chinese worshiped the forces of nature in themselves, without their embodiment in animal or human form. Therefore, abstract symbolism played a central role in the iconography of the ancient Chinese. As on Neolithic ceramics, geometric patterns on bronze vessels (triangles, rhombuses, circles, spirals, zigzags, meanders, etc.) symbolized various forces of nature - the sun, clouds, rain, thunder. Within the framework of ritual ornament, all deities and spirits found their place in the beliefs of the ancient Chinese.

Heaven and Earth, which in China were already considered, at least by Zhou, to be the personification of the masculine and feminine principles ( yang And yin), were correspondingly reflected in ritual symbolism. The symbol of Heaven was rings and disks made of jade, the symbol of Earth was the so-called zong. The zong was made of jade and consisted of two parts - a thick, square plate with a cylindrical hole in the middle and a cylindrical stick inserted into this hole. The semantics of the symbol is considered to be unambiguous: it reflects the idea of ​​fertilization as a combination of forces yang And yin, i.e. ultimately Heaven and Earth. There are discrepancies in the understanding of both parts of zong. But it can be noted that the square shape of the plate quite definitely echoes the traditional symbol of the earth in the form of a square.

So, even the most significant of the ancient Chinese deities - Earth and Sky - were displayed in ritual iconography in the form of abstract symbols that expressed only an idea associated with the cult relationship of Heaven and Earth.

Archaic cosmology and the beginning of philosophy

The basis of ancient Chinese mythology and natural philosophy is the division into the dark principle yin and the opposite beginning yang. Initially, yin apparently meant the shadow (northern) slope of the mountain. Subsequently, in connection with the development of binary classification, yin became a symbol of the feminine, north, darkness, death, moon, even numbers, etc. Yang originally meant, apparently, the light, southern slope of the mountain. Then it began to symbolize the masculine principle, the south, light, life, sky, sun, odd numbers, etc. The Chinese began to view the sky as the embodiment of yang and the earth as the embodiment of yin no later than the Zhou era. The entire process of peace was considered by the Chinese as a process of interaction (but not confrontation!) of yin and yang, which strive for each other. The culmination is considered to be the complete merging of earth and sky. The dualism of yin and yang was widely used in fortune telling, omens, and also for classifying spirits.

Wu-shin concept

An idea of ​​the interaction and interpenetration of the five main primary elements, the primary substances fire-water-earth-metal-wood.

Both concepts (yang-yin and wu-xing) were attributed to the Chinese sage Zou-Yan (no earlier than the 4th century BC and no later than Zhou China).

Tao concept

In parallel with wu-sin And Yin Yang the concept began to be developed Tao. Tao as universal Law; Supreme Truth and Justice. Moreover, at first Tao was accepted simply as a socio-ethical category and only later as a metaphysical Supreme absolute close to the ancient Indian Brahman.

Notes

These bones were discovered in 1889. in one of the Chinese pharmacies, where they were sold as “dragon teeth”.

Kept in the Cernucci Museum in Paris.

Anyang is a city in Henan province, near which a site has been excavated that served as the capital of the Shang kingdom.

Over the course of thousands of years, when democratic feelings appeared in China, ordinary Chinese began to be buried on the “sacred” mountain.

For more information about witchcraft in Ancient China, see the book by the outstanding Dutch sinologist J.Y.M. De Groot “Demonology of Ancient China.” St. Petersburg, 2000.

In medieval texts one can find discussions about the presence of shen as “vital force” in each of internal organs a person, especially in the heart, whose shen is in the form of a red bird (zhu-nyao).

Two other names for necrophagous demons: ao And wei. Since time immemorial, people have sought to protect and preserve the dead in their tombs.

On the other hand, researchers record that the phallic pillar serves as a symbol of masculinity, zhu.

Square altar she.

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Surovyagin S.P.

China is a unique country with a rich history and interesting culture. One of the main components of spiritual culture is religious views formed as a result of national distinctive traditions and customs.

The Chinese national religion was formed in ancient times, but its echoes, along with all world religions, can still be found in this state.

Religions of Ancient China

The oldest religion in China is Shenism(belief in the souls of ancestors). It was formed from myths, traditions and legends, as well as from national worship of even the most distant ancestors.

Shens are major and minor deities, mythical creatures, spirits, epic heroes and the most revered people of each kind.

The ancient religion of China believes that the whole world is full of spirits that influence all processes occurring in nature and society.

Firstly, these are the moon, stars, planets, rivers and seas, trees, flowers and stones. According to the beliefs of Shenism, absolutely everything in nature has its own eternal and immortal soul, which does not die along with the physical body.

Secondly, these are spirits who patronize individual cities, settlements and regions and are responsible for their prosperity and well-being.

Thirdly, spirits that patronize human crafts and economic activities, as well as spirits that are patrons of the hearth, family, and childbirth.

Fourthly, the spirits of especially revered ancestors and outstanding people who enjoy universal respect, according to whose precepts you need to build your life.

In almost any house in China you can find in a place of special honor something like a home altar, on which there are wooden or metal figurines - idols, personifying the spirits of the house and clan. On holidays, they are decorated with flowers and incense sticks are lit near them.

The veneration of ancestral spirits is an integral part of Chinese national culture, and is also reflected in the foundations of many Chinese folk religions. Places of worship for household spirits are graves, burial mounds, household tombs, or ancestral temples.

In addition to Chinese folk religion, all Chinese national minorities also have their own religious views. One such religion is the Moz belief. It mixed elements of animism, shamanism, polytheism, as well as ancient mythological ideas about the world.

Before the advent of Buddhism, the Bon movement arose in some areas of China, the founder of which was the mythical figure Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche. The adherents of this movement accepted the teachings of the Buddha with joy, because the dogmas of these beliefs are in many ways similar.

The Qian people inhabiting Sichuan professed the White Stone Religion, which consists of worshiping the forces of nature and the elements.

All the imperial dynasties of ancient China professed the worship of Heaven. The emperor himself was called the “Son of Heaven,” and the Chinese called their country the “Celestial Empire.”

Tao - Eternal Path

Another ancient religion in China is this is Taoism. Tao - the eternal path, along which everyone living on earth moves. The main goal of those who profess this religion is to cognize the Tao - Something Unknown, Cosmic, Universal. Merge with it in harmony and follow the path of grace and virtue. The philosophy of Feng Shui, which is gaining increasing popularity these days, originated in Taoism. This also includes some martial arts (we must remember that in the East, martial arts are not only a way of survival, but also a whole moral and ethical philosophy of life), breathing exercises, alchemy, astrology and ethnoscience. Nowadays, many medicines were created according to the recipes of ancient alchemists and astrologers professing the religion of Tao.

Teachings of Confucius

The national religion enjoys special reverence and respect in China Confucianism.

This philosophy is closely related to the name of the Chinese sage Confucius, who lived in the 6th century BC. Many legends, parables and tales are associated with his name. The works of Confucius were aimed at harmonizing public and social relations in the state, ethical teachings, and moral education of citizens. The Moral Ideal that everyone should strive for is a certain Noble Man, which every Confucian should try to become. He is humane, tolerant, compassionate, and forgiving. He has a sense of duty, filial piety, and bows to state power.

“A noble man thinks about duty, and a petty man thinks about profit”, “The emperor is a father to his subjects, and his subjects are respectful sons”, “Forbearance is the word on which you can live your life” - these are the sayings of the great Chinese philosopher, made history.

During the reign of the Han Dynasty (3rd century BC), Confucianism received the status of a national state religion; this teaching was considered as a moral system for educating citizens. In this teaching, reverence for elders and respect for one’s ancestors also plays a special role. These include the mythical character Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, who is considered the forefather of all Chinese.

One should not think that today Confucianism is preached only in China. It has a huge influence all over the world. In such major countries of the world as Great Britain, the USA, Canada, Australia, there are branches of the Institutes for the Study of the Works of Confucius.

First world religion

First world religion – Buddhism, originating in the 6th century BC. in India, gradually penetrated into China, spread throughout the country and gained enormous influence on the formation of the public worldview. At first, Buddhism was spread among the Chinese nobility, then other segments of the population began to be imbued with the ideas of Buddha (the Enlightened One).

It is not for nothing that Buddhism became the first world religion; its teaching allows a person to improve himself, change for the better, and achieve harmony with nature and the Cosmos. Buddhism preaches asceticism, i.e. renunciation of earthly goods and pleasures.

The main tenet of Buddhism says that a person is unhappy because he cannot satisfy his desires, which means that in order to be happy, one must learn not to desire. In Buddhism, the phenomenon of meditation (falling into nirvana - a kind of unity with the natural world and the Cosmos), yoga, and breathing exercises has developed. It was in this religion that the main law of human existence was formulated: Treat others the way you want to be treated.

Among other things, it was Buddha who preached the law of universal justice - the repeated rebirth and rebirth of the soul into any being, depending on your lifetime actions and your moral attitude towards the world.

Christianity and Islam

For the first time in Chinese history Christianity the Nestorian sense appeared there in the 7th century. For one and a half hundred years, Christianity enjoyed the support of the imperial family. But in 845, Emperor Wuzong banned Taoism, Buddhism and Christianity, wanting only his own folk religions to flourish in China.

During the reign of the Ming and Yuan imperial dynasties, Islam, the youngest of the world's religions, entered China.

What is the religion in China now?

Currently, China preaches a policy of religious tolerance. Representatives of almost all world faiths can be found on this blessed land. The main religions of China are Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, both directions of Christianity: Orthodoxy and Catholicism and Islam.

China declares itself to be a secular state, tolerant of all religions of the world. Each of the religions represented has its own temples, they have created local and national associations, they are not controlled government agencies and maintain a strict hierarchy.

During the so-called Cultural Revolution, all religions were banned, and China preached only one religion - atheism. Although, along with atheism, the personality cult of Mao Zedong can be considered as worship of the supreme deity.

After 1978, all previously revered temples, mosques and cathedrals were restored, all bans on religious beliefs were lifted, and their activities were resumed.

Buddhism, Taoism, Protestantism, Catholicism and other religions existed and spread in the Celestial Empire throughout the history of its existence, which gives the right to call it a country with many faiths.

Today the state protects freedom of religion. Every citizen has the right to practice religious worship and rituals. This is stated in the constitution of the Celestial Empire. In the country, religion is given special importance; for the majority of the country's citizens, belonging to a particular religion and national pride are on the same level.

The state has never strictly centralized the religious sphere. The Chinese, both poor and rich, in ancient times believed in three main schools of thought, which prevailed to varying degrees in different regions of the country.

In the religion of ancient China there were no priests in the usual sense, no deities and no temples that were erected in their honor. Priestly functions had to be performed by officials, and various spirits personifying natural forces and the dead ancestors of the Shang Di were the highest deities.

The peasants had high hopes that they would receive an excellent harvest, so the cult of the spirits of the earth was very important. They made sacrifices, prayed, and performed special rituals.

In ancient China, it was believed that Heaven rewards all virtuous people, but, on the contrary, it drips on the unworthy. The Emperor was considered the “son of Heaven” and was under his special patron, but he could rule the country only by maintaining virtue. If this quality was lost, the emperor lost the right to rule.

Everything that exists in the religion of ancient China was divided into principles: yin, as the masculine principle, and yang, the feminine. The entire visible universe was the result of a close and harmonious interaction between these principles.

We will consider the main types of ancient Chinese religion below.

The world-famous philosopher Confucius compiled a philosophical doctrine and instruction, which was called Confucianism. His followers and students developed this teaching. It is believed that Confucianism was founded at the end of the 6th century, subsequently spreading to Japan and Korea.

Confucianism is not just a religion, it is a way of life and ethical instruction, and only then a philosophical school.

Confucianism was considered the dominant religion in China during the reign of the emperors in the country; it was it that laid down the basic principles of Chinese society.

Officially, the teaching was never a religion, but this did not prevent it from penetrating the consciousness of the entire public, influencing the behavior of the Chinese, performing all the functions of the official religion.

The teachings paid special attention to the problems of the power of the emperor and their subjects, and prescribed what the behavior of one and the other should be.

This teaching included elements of religion and philosophy. It is believed that the foundations of Taoism originated in the 3rd century BC, but it was only in the 2nd century AD that it was fully formed, when the first philosophical school arose.

Taoism, in which some characteristic features of Buddhism can be traced, has never been the official Chinese religion. The teaching was followed to a greater extent by hermits and hermits, and sometimes by popular movements. It was these teachings that stimulated the masses to revolt, and scientists had new ideas, because they drew strength and inspiration from Taoism.

It should be noted that Tao itself, as the law of existence and space, is everywhere, but no one can see or hear it, it does not even have a form, no one created it. In order to become truly happy, you need to understand the Tao and become one with it. It is ideal for a believer in Taoism to become a hermit. This religion has always been in opposition to Confucianism, which preached service to the emperor.

This religious and philosophical teaching spoke of spiritual awakening. Buddhism arose in the 6th century BC, and it was founded by Buddha (the famous philosopher Siddhartha Gautama) in India, after which the religion penetrated into ancient China, which was already in the first century AD.

Throughout the world, Buddhism is considered one of the most ancient religions. The Buddha declared that man himself is the main cause of his suffering. The main goal here is to achieve the state of nirvana, the only way a person can awaken and see the real world.

A special place in Buddhism is given to meditation. These are means of spiritual and physical self-improvement.

Religion of China in the Middle Ages

In the early Middle Ages, Chinese society was characterized by several religions.

Elements of Taoism and Buddhism were introduced into Confucianism, thanks to which it changed and became the newest political and cultural force in the Middle Kingdom, which was very powerful.

It should be noted that Confucianism was not able to supplant Taoism and Buddhism, but at the end of the 15th century its position in China became dominant.

Today, almost half of the inhabitants of the Middle Kingdom believe that they are atheists, approximately 30% are non-religious. This was largely facilitated by government policy during the formation of the PRC and during the Cultural Revolution in the country. But in reality, only 15% of the population of the Middle Kingdom can be classified as realists. These people do not believe in any religion, do not observe religious customs and do not celebrate holidays. For most Chinese today, religion is given the most important place in life.

Despite the fact that Chinese culture may be one, in reality the religion of the Celestial Empire is diverse. There are many believers among the local population who profess world religions. In almost every city in the Middle Kingdom there are like-minded groups that honor the religious and historical religions of different religions.

It must be emphasized that Chinese religion is closely related to philosophy.

Using the example of Chinese folk religion, one can see how religious beliefs become part of the views of people who do not identify themselves with any particular religion. Today, the main religions in China are Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity and Islam.