Credit institutions, their types and functions. Organizational structure of Sberbank

The well-known Sberbank in our country is called the Savings Bank of the Russian Federation. It is one of the largest financial institutions in the country, which occupies the highest positions in the financial world in some special macroeconomic parameters. Today we will give you a full description of the Savings Bank of Russia.

Peculiarities:

• the largest number of regional offices, branches throughout the country;
• state support;
• maintaining a sound financial policy.

The Sberbank coverage network consists of:

• branches;
• branches;
• regional banks;
• other departments.

It can also be additional offices, mobile operating cash desks, mobile points.

Features of work

Sberbank is a joint-stock commercial bank established by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. The form of organization is an open joint-stock company.

The official opening took place in 1991, although this is the very first bank in the country, which takes its own from early XIX century.

The management structure of Sberbank consists of the General Meeting of Shareholders, the Board of the Bank, the Board of Directors, and the President of the Bank. All operations are carried out in this institution on the basis of the existing Charter, which is typical in form for all financial institutions.

In addition, one of the characteristics of the bank is its versatility. It is embodied in the fact that the bank provides more than a hundred different types of services. The most common services are lending, accepting funds as a deposit at interest, settlement and cash services. The new, most relevant services of the bank are dealing services, operations on the stock market, and the provision of intermediary services.

The Bank's divisions are actively working with both individuals and legal entities.

Working with individuals

The biggest money turnover is brought to Sberbank by deposits individuals. This is due to the fact that the customer service is the most developed. Sberbank also offers a wide range of additional services to the same individuals:

• provision of various types of loans;
• additional investment bonuses;
• favorable conditions for mortgage lending.

The main types of deposits are both ruble and foreign currency. The most popular currencies are the dollar and the euro. Moreover, foreign currency deposits are in no way inferior to ruble deposits, even among not very wealthy segments of the population.

Working with legal entities

Legal entities also "order" various services - mainly the transfer of employees' salaries or loans, depending on the capabilities of the legal entity served.

Large companies and corporations trust the services of Sberbank for foreign exchange transactions.

Operations on deposits

It is believed that Sberbank is perhaps the only Russian bank that has a state guarantee on deposits, including the implementation of the necessary policy to stabilize the savings of depositors. The return of deposits, no matter how large it is, Sberbank always guarantees. So, any contributor, if he urgently needs cash, can apply to the nearest branch at his place of residence, and the disbursement of funds on the deposit can be issued immediately. However, if the branch does not have the necessary amount of required funds, then the user will be asked to wait up to 1 day - in principle, this is a very short waiting period. This is because the bank has a reserve fund in its reserves, which the general management has carefully set up.

This circumstance is the key "trump card" of Sberbank when making agreements with depositors. That is why people trust the bank and without a doubt carry their savings into it.

Why do we choose Sberbank?

Many sociologists and financiers are sometimes concerned about the question: why exactly do people choose Sberbank for their investments, requests for loans, including mortgages? One of the reasons already described above is the creation of a reserve fund.

The second thing that attracts individuals is an automatic investment if a person has a salary account with Sberbank: that is, it is very convenient to receive a salary and have a loan in the same bank.

Sberbank is one of the reputable banks that use all the famous, most popular and reliable payment systems. Sberbank issues plastic debit and credit cards Visa, Master Card, Eurocard, as well as the latest models of microprocessor-based small cards.

Other services of Sberbank

Correspondent functions of Sberbank are extensive: it interacts with various foreign banks. This gives him the ability to conduct transactions with many currencies of the world, including the rarest and not so often used by Russians.

There is such a community as the interbank financial community (international abbreviation - SWIFT), whose purpose is to guarantee the immediate transfer of funds to any bank in the world. This association also includes Sberbank, which is its active and reliable member.

Also, our bank is a member of specialized international organizations. This is the highest dignity of this Russian bank. This means that Sberbank maintains its stable position in terms of reliability and competitiveness.

Sberbank's participation in various incentive events is also not limited to holding goodwill actions, patronage and patronage - the activities that have historically developed over the entire history of the existence of Sberbank of Russia. The bank's charitable undertakings have always been encouraged and are currently supported by the state.

The characteristic of Sberbank does not end there. Self-confidence, high quality service, honesty and guarantees provided to customers form the image of Sberbank of Russia as the most reliable and successful financial institution.

The history of Sberbank of Russia begins with the personal decree of Emperor Nicholas I of 1841 on the establishment of savings banks, the first of which opened in St. Petersburg in 1842. A century and a half later, in 1987, on the basis of state labor savings banks, a specialized bank for labor savings and lending to the population was created - Sberbank of the USSR, which also worked with legal entities. The structure of the Savings Bank of the USSR included 15 republican banks, including the Russian Republican Bank.

In July 1990, by a resolution of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR, the Russian Republican Bank of the Sberbank of the USSR was declared the property of the RSFSR. In December 1990, it was transformed into a joint-stock commercial bank, which was legally established at the general meeting of shareholders on March 22, 1991. In the same 1991, Sberbank became the property of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and was registered as a joint-stock commercial Savings Bank of the Russian Federation. Largely thanks to the support of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and the increase in fees for settlement services, Sberbank managed to withstand the default on GKO-OFZs in 1998 (at that time, the share of government debt in the bank's assets was 52%, and the loan portfolio accounted for only 21% of net assets). In September 2012, the Central Bank of the Russian Federation sold a 7.6% stake in Sberbank to private investors for 159 billion rubles, or almost $5 billion.

At the moment, the Central Bank remains the controlling shareholder (the regulator has 50% of the authorized capital plus one voting share), which is also the only shareholder with a stake of at least 5% of the authorized capital of Sberbank. 50% minus one voting share is in public circulation, including legal entities- Non-residents own about 45.64% of Sberbank's shares. The bank's ordinary and preferred shares have been listed on Russian stock exchanges since 1996. American Depositary Receipts (ADRs) are listed on the London Stock Exchange, admitted to trading on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange and on the OTC market in the United States.

The geography of Sberbank Group covers 22 countries, including the Russian Federation. In addition to the CIS countries, Sberbank is represented in Central and Eastern Europe (Sberbank Europe AG, formerly Volksbank International), Turkey (DenizBank), Great Britain and the USA, Cyprus and a number of other countries (companies of the CIB group). The bank also has representative offices in Germany and China, a branch in India. In 2013, the official launch of the Sberbank brand in Europe took place. The deal to purchase DenizBank was completed in September 2012 and was the largest acquisition in the bank's more than 170-year history. However, in May 2018, Sberbank entered into a binding agreement to sell the business in Turkey. Closing of the transaction for the sale of DenizBank is scheduled for the first quarter of 2019.

In 2012, Sberbank closed a deal to merge with the investment company Troika Dialog (transformed into the corporate investment structure Sberbank CIB, and retail bank Troika Dialog was sold to a group of private investors in autumn 2013). Also in 2012, a deal was closed for the purchase by Sberbank from the French group BNP Paribas of a majority stake in its subsidiary Russian retail bank (now the joint venture operates as Cetelem Bank, Sberbank's share is 79.2% as of May 30, 2018).

The Bank is the leader not only in terms of assets, but also in terms of the number of clients served - legal entities (over 2.3 million corporate clients). In the private market, Sberbank of Russia is a monopolist, controlling 45% of the market (the bulk of deposits of individuals are the so-called pension deposits in rubles). It should be noted that at the beginning of 2002 the bank's share was 71.4%. The further decline in the market share occupied by Sberbank is largely facilitated by the deposit insurance system and an increase in the amount of insurance compensation. The Bank is the largest issuer of debit and credit cards (including over 122 million debit cards issued), has one of the world's largest networks of ATMs and self-service terminals (more than 75 thousand devices). The total number of active retail customers is about 88 million people. The number of employees of the Sberbank group, according to IFRS, as of September 30, 2018, was almost 300 thousand people.

The historically developed territorial network (more than 14 thousand branches in 83 constituent entities of the Russian Federation, located on the territory of 11 time zones) contributes to the bank's success in the retail lending market. The bank currently serves 150 million customers worldwide. Sberbank is also actively developing its Mobile Bank and Sberbank Online applications with an impressive client base of more than 30 million active users. Sberbank accounts for more than 41% of all loans to individuals and almost 34% of loans to legal entities. Back in 2012, Sberbank overtook the former leader in the credit card segment - Russian Standard Bank. The bank's share in the mortgage lending market is 56%.

Sberbank offers retail clients a wide range of banking products and services, including deposits, different kinds lending (, and), bank cards, money transfers, bank insurance and brokerage services.

Sberbank of Russia serves all groups of corporate clients. Small and medium-sized companies account for about a third of the corporate loan portfolio. The bank also offers deposits, settlement services, project, trade and export financing, cash management services, and others.

From January to early October 2018, the bank's net assets increased by 9.2%, amounting to RUB 26.4 trillion as of the reporting date. In liabilities, the main increase in absolute terms was demonstrated by the funds of enterprises and organizations (+0.7 trillion rubles, or +11.3%). Significant growth was also shown by equity capital, the volume of which, in accordance with the methodology of the Central Bank, increased by almost 10% (+0.4 trillion rubles). In assets, liquidity was mainly directed to lending: the total portfolio grew by 14%, while both corporate loans (+11.2%) and retail loans (+19.3%) demonstrated strong dynamics.

The leading positions in the bank's resource base are traditionally occupied by funds on accounts and deposits of individuals - 45.4% of liabilities as of the reporting date (at the beginning of 2018 - 49.5%). Another quarter of assets form balances on settlement and deposit accounts of corporate clients. Own funds (capital and reserves) account for another 14%, borrowings from banks (MBK) - 3.5% of net liabilities, securities issued by the bank - 1.3%. Turnovers only on settlement and current accounts of bank customers in the last months of the study period amounted to an impressive amount of 25-27 trillion rubles.

In the structure of net assets, 68.2% as of October 1, 2018 falls on the loan portfolio, in which 68% form loans issued to enterprises and organizations; overdue in the total portfolio is shown at the level of 2.5% under RAS (unchanged compared to the beginning of 2018). The level of provisioning is quite conservative compared to the minimum share of delinquency and as of the reporting date was 6.2% of the loan portfolio. The loan portfolio is mainly formed by long-term (issued for a period of more than a year) loans.

Share in 10.6% of assets - portfolio valuable papers represented mainly by bonds. It should be noted that Sberbank is the largest holder of government securities (1.2 trillion rubles as of the reporting date), which form about half of the bank's portfolio. Cash on hand and on correspondent accounts (including the Central Bank) form the basis of highly liquid funds, whose share in net assets is 6.6%.

In the interbank lending market, Sberbank works both ways, monthly both attracting and placing impressive amounts of liquidity.

According to the results of the first nine months of 2018, the bank received 612.7 billion rubles net profit according to RAS. The indicator exceeded the result for the same period in 2017 (495.8 billion rubles) and is already close to the result for the whole of 2017 (674.1 billion rubles).

Supervisory Board: Sergey Ignatiev (Chairman), German Gref, Sergey Shvetsov, Nadezhda Ivanova, Bella Zlatkis, Olga Skorobogatova, Maxim Oreshkin, Valery Goreglyad, Leonid Boguslavsky, Gennady Melikyan, Nadia Wells, Vladimir Mau, Esko Aho, Alexander Kuleshov.

Governing body: German Gref (Chairman, President), Alexander Vedyakhin, Lev Khasis, Oleg Ganeev, Bella Zlatkis, Stanislav Kuznetsov, Alexander Morozov, Alexander Torbakhov, Anatoly Popov.

Savings institutions are those credit and financial institutions whose main specialization is to raise funds from the population in .

If initially savings institutions specialized mainly in accepting deposits from individuals, now they have turned into universal credit organizations that perform a wide range of banking operations.

Classification of savings institutions

All over the world, savings institutions are usually divided into the following types:

• trust-savings - a type of cooperative credit institutions, most common in the UK. They place most of the funds they raise in debt states;
• mutual savings - do not have share capital. They are mostly distributed in the USA. Their peculiarity is the opening of special sci-accounts for clients;
• postal savings - combined with the postal system and distributed in the developed countries of the world.

Savings institutions in Russia

In Russia, commercial banks are engaged in the savings business. A typical example of a savings institution in our country is the Savings Bank of Russia. It is the largest bank in the country in terms of both the number of assets and the number of customers.

A particular bank specializes in attracting deposits from the public, which constitute a significant part of its passive operations. In 2014, Sberbank, like other savings institutions in Russia, experienced an influx of cash deposits from the population due to higher interest rates. This was due to the Bank of Russia raising the key rate, the value of which rose to 17.5%. In this regard, banks were forced to raise rates on loans, and after them - on deposits.

Another factor that contributed to the inflow of deposits from individuals was the doubling of the sum insured to 1,400,000 rubles.

Banks with state participation and, first of all, Sberbank of Russia. This is due to the following factors:

• the population traditionally trusts such credit organizations more;
• the state during the crisis provides economic and financial assistance, primarily to banks of strategic importance.

However, after the key rate cut savings institutions again felt the threat of a liquidity crisis, that is, a lack of free cash in the accounts.

Sberbank operations

In addition to accepting deposits, Sberbank also conducts other passive operations. Among them:

• maintenance of client accounts;
• obtaining loans in the interbank lending market;

The most profitable active operations of Sberbank of the Russian Federation are:

• placement of loans among the population;
• placement of loans among legal entities and other banking institutions;
• transactions in the securities market.

Thus, Sberbank combines the functions of a savings and commercial bank.

Stay up to date with all important United Traders events - subscribe to our

According to the results of 1997, Sberbank of Russia, the only commercial bank in the country, was among the two hundred largest credit institutions in the world and among the first hundred European banks. In 1997 Sberbank of Russia celebrated its 156th anniversary.

Over its more than a century and a half history, the Bank has gone through a difficult path of development - from the opening of the first Russian savings banks to the largest Russian commercial bank. Its activity began in the 19th century and includes several stages:

• On October 30, 1841, the Decree of Emperor Nicholas 1 was issued on the establishment of savings banks in Russia "with the aim of providing people with insufficient means of any rank to save in a correct and profitable way."
• 1842 The first savings banks opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
• 1862 The general management of the savings banks was entrusted to the State Bank under the supervision of the Ministry of Finance.
• 1895 At the initiative of the Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte adopted a new Charter of savings banks. Savings banks began to be called "state".
• 1918 Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of January 21 on the inviolability of deposits in savings banks.
• 1919 Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of April 10 on the merger of savings banks with the People's Bank of the RSFSR.
• 1922 Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of December 26 "On the establishment of state savings banks."
• 1948 The new Charter of the state labor savings banks was approved.
• 1988 State Labor Savings Banks were transformed into Sberbank of the USSR as a state specialized bank for servicing the population.
• 1990 The Russian Republican Bank of the Sberbank of the USSR was declared the property of the RSFSR. The Savings Bank of the RSFSR was transformed into a Joint Stock Commercial Bank.
• 1991 At the general meeting of shareholders, the Joint Stock Commercial Savings Bank of the Russian Federation was re-established in the form of a joint stock company in accordance with the Law of the RSFSR "On banks and banking activities in the RSFSR" of December 2, 1990.
• 1993 Sberbank was given the status of an official dealer of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation for State Short-term Zero Coupon Bonds and Federal Loan Bonds and an authorized bank for working with Gold Certificates of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation. The issue of own bills of exchange and certificates of deposit has begun.
• 1996 According to the financial results of the year, Sberbank of Russia, the only Russian bank, entered the top hundred of the largest credit institutions in Europe (including 8th place in terms of profit, 11th place in terms of return on capital). Based on the results of work for 1996, the Bank for the first time received an audit report in accordance with international standards accounting. The General Meeting of Shareholders approved the Concept for the Development of Sberbank of Russia until the Year 2000, which provides for the further transformation of the Bank into a universal credit and financial institution.
• 1997 International rating agencies Fitch IBCA and Thomson Bank Watch assigned Sberbank of Russia the highest credit and long-term credit rating of BB+ among Russian commercial banks, equal to the rating of the Russian Federation. Sberbank received for the first time a syndicated loan from a group of Western banks in the amount of USD 225 million. The bank was granted observer status in the European Group of Savings Banks (EGSB). The largest dealing center in Russia was put into operation.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Chelyabinsk Region GBOU VET Zlatoust College of Technology and Economics Department of Economics Specialty 80 110 "Banking"

Report on the practice of the Discipline P M.02

Carrying out lending operations in OJSC Sberbank of Russia

• 1. Implementation of credit operations
• 1.1 Organization of work on lending to clients
• 1.2 Assessment of creditworthiness and solvency of customers
• 1.3 Ways to ensure loan repayment
• 1.4 Lending to legal entities and individuals
• 1.5 Interbank loans
• Bibliography
• Applications

1. Implementation of credit operations

1.1 Organization of work on lending to clients

The credit process is the process of organizing the bank's credit activities, consisting of a set of successive stages: from consideration of a loan application to repayment of loan debt by the borrower.

We single out the following stages of the credit process:

1. Consideration of an application for a loan and an interview with a potential borrower.

2. Assessment of the applicant's creditworthiness.

3. Studying the sufficiency, acceptability and liquidity of tangible and intangible assets as collateral for a loan.

4. Loan structuring and conclusion of a loan agreement.

5. Providing a loan.

6. Loan service.

7. Loan repayment.

The traditional scheme of organizing the work of many commercial banks in servicing customers - potential borrowers was built for a long time as a multi-contact model of cooperation between a client and various credit departments in a bank.

In this model, the procedure for accepting a loan application, analyzing creditworthiness, preparing a loan agreement, monitoring payments and repaying a loan, as well as other functions are performed by different bank specialists. As a result, on the one hand, the principle of functional specialization of credit units is being approved, and on the other hand, the number of approvals is increasing, operating costs are growing, and the efficiency of decision-making on various lending issues is lost. From the point of view of convenience for the client, such a scheme is not always preferable for use, especially in large banks with significant financial capabilities and a diverse clientele. A bank client, especially a corporate borrower, suffers in this case from the need for many contacts on different levels management: from a bank employee accepting a loan application to top managers.

As an alternative, it is proposed to use the “authorized loan manager” mechanism, or, in other words, the one-contact bank customer service scheme.

In order to reduce operating costs and credit risks, the authors propose the following subordination of credit units for one-contact servicing of a bank client.

The credit division, in addition to the authorized credit manager, includes a credit manager - an employee of the bank authorized to make decisions on various aspects of lending, including the submission of the issue of granting a loan to the credit committee. As suggested by the authors, each lending unit should be accountable to more than high level management.

Table 1

Elements of credit policy

The following subdivisions of the bank are involved in the performance of credit operations: lending, security, legal, operational, accounting (or subdivisions that support the loan), if necessary - subdivisions that carry out currency operations, securities transactions, risk management, housing finance, etc., as well as subsidiaries of the bank licensed to conduct real estate transactions.

Department (sector) of lending:

1) takes part in the formation of a reserve for possible losses on loans that are within the competence of the department; carries out the classification of loan debt, which is under the jurisdiction of the department; controls the completeness and correctness of the creation of a reserve for possible losses on loans in the branches of the region;

2) provides methodological and informational support for lending departments of the region (methodological, regulatory, instructive and analytical materials) in all main areas of activity of the department;

3) exercises control over the work of the regional branches on lending to legal entities and individuals and project financing, including through targeted inspections on the ground, as well as attestation of employees of credit services of the regional branches;

4) takes part in the organization of activities to improve the skills of employees of regional departments;

5) generates statistical and other established reporting on issues within the competence of the department.

The functions of the lending department (sector) include:

1) lending to legal entities;

2) lending to individuals.

Formation of the organizational structure of the office of the branch of Sberbank of Russia. When assigning a category to a branch, in accordance with which the divisions of the branch apparatus that carry out banking activities are formed (within the granted powers), the following criteria (indicators) are used:

1) the size of the branch balance currency;

2) the profitability of the department;

3) the number of serviced accounts of individuals and legal entities, the balance of funds raised from clients, the average amount of deposits of individuals; average balance of funds of legal entities;

4) the amount of operating assets, the amount of loan debt;

5) ratio effective use attracted funds;

6) the share of non-interest income in the total amount of income;

7) place of branch in the regional financial markets;

8) other criteria (indicators) established by the territorial bank.

Anyone who has a regular income can get a loan. From the age of 18, if the borrower has a regular source of income, to a person under the age of 75 who receives a pension from Sberbank of Russia.

The financial stability of a commercial organization is its ability to function and develop, maintain a balance of its assets and liabilities, the ability to meet its debts using its own resources and borrowed funds, and also develop based on profit growth and maintaining solvency and creditworthiness.

The financial position of an organization is considered stable if it covers with its own funds at least 50% of the financial resources necessary to carry out normal business activities, uses financial resources efficiently, observes financial, credit and settlement discipline, in other words, is solvent. A stable financial condition is achieved with equity capital adequacy, good asset quality, sufficient level of profitability, liquidity adequacy, stable income and wide opportunities to raise borrowed funds.

Financial sustainability is due both to the stability of the economic environment in which the organization operates, and the results of its functioning, its active and effective response to changes in internal and external factors.

Thus, the essence of financial stability is determined by the effective formation, distribution and use of financial resources.

To ensure financial stability, an organization must have a flexible capital structure, be able to organize its movement in such a way as to ensure a constant excess of income over expenses in order to maintain solvency.

Financial stability indicators characterize the degree of dependence of the organization on external sources of financing and the structure of the capital used by organizations from the standpoint of its solvency and financial stability of development. These indicators make it possible to assess the degree of protection of investors and creditors, as they reflect the organization's ability to repay long-term obligations.

The analysis of financial stability comes from the main balance formula, which establishes the balance of the asset and liability indicators of the balance sheet, which has the following form:

AB + AO \u003d KS + ZD + KZR

Taking into account all subsections of the balance sheet, this formula can be represented as follows:

AB + (PZ + DZ) \u003d KS + ZD + (ZS + KZ + PS)

Group the organization's assets according to their participation in the production process, and liabilities - according to their participation in the formation of the organization's working capital, obtaining the following formula:

(AV + PZ) + DZ \u003d (KS + PS) + ZD + ZS + KZ

1.2 Assessment of creditworthiness and solvency of customers

In the practice of banks, various approaches are used to determine the credit risk of individuals, starting with subjective assessments by credit experts of commercial banks and ending with automated systems risk assessment.

The solvency of the client is his ability and ability to repay all types of obligations and debts in a timely manner.

Creditworthiness is only the ability of an enterprise to repay a loan debt.

In banking practice, when considering an application for a loan, both of these concepts exist in close relationship.

After all, without an analysis of solvency, there is a danger of manifestation in the future of factors that will directly affect the creditworthiness of the client.

At the same time, the client's creditworthiness may be much higher than his solvency, since repayment of the loan is possible from the funds received from the sale of the pledged property, as well as from the funds of the guarantor (guarantor).

Scheme for analyzing the financial condition of the enterprise The result of the assessment of the loan application should be:

Formulation of conclusions about the creditworthiness of the borrower;

Determination of the type and characteristics of the loan product, which are most consistent with the general direction of the development of the bank's business with this client.

The assessment of loan applications is usually based on the application of a comprehensive rating system for evaluating loan applications, which is carried out in accordance with the current methods for determining the credit risk group of loan products (ie by scoring according to predetermined criteria).

At the same time, a short dossier of the client is filled in according to the established form.

At the same time, the process of assessing the quality of an application should not be limited solely to its analysis according to the specified rating system of classification (i.e., to the calculation of the risk group), since such a classification cannot take into account all the factors that affect the final assessment of a particular loan application.

In addition, the focus on a purely quantitative method of analysis often leads to too general conclusions, which ignore the features inherent in a particular client or product, and also do not take into account factors that affect the risk group.

For example, given the same risk level of borrowers, their account turnover, their financial performance, and their return to the bank (i.e. factors to be taken into account when deciding whether to grant a loan) can vary widely.

The assessment of the client's creditworthiness is usually based on the analysis of the following criteria:

Quality of company management (management level);

The nature of the credited transaction;

Bank experience with this specific client (credit history);

The state of the industry and the region, the competitiveness of the client, the position of a particular client in the specified industry;

financial position of the client;

Possibility of provision by the client of property for use as other collateral.

Management must be competent and experienced enough to set realistic financial goals and targets.

The experience of the bank with the client (the nature of the relationship with the client).

First of all, the loan officer must assess the strength of the bank's relationship with the client and its history.

Factors to consider when evaluating the nature of a bank's relationship with a customer include:

The duration of the relationship between the borrower and the bank in terms of lending, provision by the bank to the client of other products with credit risks, cash management services and other types of banking services (products);

Quantitative parameters of the bank's operations with this client for all types of products (amounts and terms of loans, guarantees, etc., the amount of turnover on accounts, the amount of deposits, etc.);

Credit history.

1.3 Ways to ensure loan repayment

The loan repayment guarantee must be legislative framework. Thus, the existence of a contract cannot give the creditor full confidence in its performance; in order to give the parties additional guarantees, the law provides for the possibility of them concluding special agreements on securing the main obligation.

In accordance with Article 329 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the fulfillment of obligations by debtors can be ensured in several ways:

· Penalty

Bank guarantee

· Deposit

· Guarantee

Detention of the debtor's property

· Other methods provided by the pledge or the agreement

· Penalty (fine, penalty) - the amount of money that the debtor is obliged to pay in case of non-fulfillment or improper fulfillment of an obligation. Types of penalty:

Legal (its size can be increased by agreement of the parties, if the law does not prohibit this);

Negotiable (determined by the contract).

· Bank guarantee.

A bank guarantee is a written obligation of a bank, other credit institution or insurance company, issued to the creditor of the principal (beneficiary) and consisting in the payment of a certain amount of money in accordance with its terms and at the written request of the latter. Thus, when implementing the norms on a bank guarantee, three persons always enter into a legal relationship:

Guarantor, i.e. a bank, other credit institution or insurance organization, which issues a guarantee;

· Deposit - a method of securing the fulfillment of obligations, in which the amount of money recognized as a deposit is issued by one of the contracting parties on account of payments due from it under the contract to the other party as proof of the conclusion of the contract and to ensure its execution.

An agreement on a deposit is always made in writing, otherwise this amount is considered paid as an advance, unless otherwise proven.

Deposit functions:

Payment - issued on account of due payments on the main obligation;

Security - is counted against the main obligation and in this part guarantees, ensures its fulfillment. If the party that received the deposit is responsible for non-performance of the contract, it is obliged to pay the other party the double amount of the deposit;

Certifying - by transferring the deposit all the main obligation or part thereof, the debtor confirms the existence of the obligation;

Compensatory - the party responsible for non-fulfillment of the contract is obliged to compensate the other party for losses, offsetting the amount of the deposit, unless otherwise provided by the contract.

The deposit must be returned to the party that gave it:

upon termination of an obligation prior to the commencement of its execution by agreement of the parties;

due to the impossibility of fulfilling the obligation, if this is caused by a circumstance for which neither of the parties is responsible.

· Guarantee, the essence of which lies in the fact that the guarantor undertakes to be responsible to the creditor of another person for the fulfillment by the latter of his obligations in full or certain points thereof. Thus, the surety increases the probability for the creditor of the fulfillment of obligations, since in the event of their violation by the debtor, the creditor can present his claims to the guarantor.

The suretyship agreement must be made in writing. Failure to comply with the written form entails the invalidity of the surety agreement (Article 362 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

The surety agreement should include the following aspects:

an obligation secured by a surety;

the amount of responsibility of the guarantor (he assumes responsibility for the fulfillment of the obligation in whole or in part) indicating the amount;

circumstances under which the guarantor's liability arises for non-fulfillment or improper fulfillment of the debtor's obligations;

type of liability of the guarantor (joint and several or subsidiary);

the number of guarantors and the share of responsibility of each of them to the creditor.

In accordance with Art. 367 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the guarantee is terminated due to:

termination of the obligation secured by it;

an obligation secured by it, entailing an increase in liability or other adverse consequences for the guarantor;

transfer to another person of a debt under a secured obligation, if the guarantor has not given the creditor consent to be responsible for the new debtor;

refusal of the creditor to accept the proper performance offered by the debtor or surety;

expiration of the term specified in the contract for which it is given If such a term is not established in the contract, the suretyship is terminated if the creditor does not bring a claim against the surety within a year from the date of the due date for the performance of the obligation secured by the suretyship.

The right of retention of the debtor's property (in accordance with Article 359 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation) is a method of securing the fulfillment of obligations, in which the creditor, who has the thing to be transferred to the debtor or to a third party specified by the debtor, has the right, in case of failure by the debtor to fulfill the obligation to pay for this thing or compensation to the creditor of the costs and other losses associated with it, hold it until the corresponding obligation is fulfilled. Retention is convenient when the creditor has a thing to be transferred to the debtor.

These functions are generally consistent general functions ways to ensure the fulfillment of obligations, therefore, attributing the retention of property to the methods of securing obligations is justified.

However, the retention of property performs another function - a preventive, related to security.

The latter is inherent in all methods of securing obligations and is carried out when the deadline for the obligation has come and the debtor has not performed proper performance. The preventive function consists in objectively stimulating the debtor to proper behavior, since the creditor does not need an agreement, the implementation of special procedures, an appeal to jurisdictional authorities, etc. the property may not be returned to him, he will make every effort to fulfill his obligation, regardless of whether the agreement provides for methods of security.

Pledge - a method of securing an obligation, in which the creditor (pledge holder) has the right, in the event of the debtor's failure to fulfill this obligation, to receive satisfaction at the expense of the pledged property preferentially over other creditors. The pledger can be both the debtor himself and a third party, both the owner of the thing himself and the person who has the right of economic management over it. A pledge without a principal obligation cannot exist. It arises by virtue of an agreement or law upon the occurrence of the circumstances specified in it, if the law provides for what property and to ensure the fulfillment of what obligation is recognized as being pledged.

1. The pledge agreement must contain conditions that provide for the type of pledge, the essence of the claim secured by the pledge, its amount, the terms for fulfilling the obligation, the composition and value of the pledged property, as well as any other conditions regarding which, at the request of one of the parties, an agreement must be reached.

2. The pledge agreement must be made in writing.

3. An agreement on a pledge that secures obligations arising from the main agreement, subject to notarization or notarized by agreement of the parties, must also be certified by the body that certified the main agreement.

4. A condition on a pledge may be included in an agreement under which an obligation secured by a pledge arises. Such an agreement must be concluded in the form established for a pledge agreement.

5. The form of the pledge agreement is determined by the legislation of the place of its conclusion. A pledge agreement concluded outside the Russian Federation cannot be declared invalid due to non-compliance with the form, if the requirements established by the legislation of the Russian Federation are met.

Form of an agreement on the pledge of buildings, structures, enterprises, land plots and other objects located on the territory of the Russian Federation, as well as railway rolling stock, civil air, sea and river vessels, space objects registered in the Russian Federation, regardless of the place of conclusion of such an agreement determined by the legislation of the Russian Federation (as amended by federal law dated July 26, 2006 No. 129-FZ).

6. The rights and obligations of the parties to the pledge agreement are determined by the legislation of the country where the party being the pledger is established, has a place of residence or main place of activity, unless otherwise established by agreement of the parties.

The pledge ends:

1) with the termination of the obligation secured by the pledge;

2) if the pledged property was acquired for compensation by a person who did not know and should not have known that this property is the subject of pledge; 3) in the event of the destruction of the pledged thing or the termination of the pledged right, if the pledgor has not exercised the right provided for by paragraph 2 of Article 345 of this Code;

4) in the case of the sale of the pledged property in order to satisfy the claims of the pledgee in the manner prescribed by law, including when the pledgee leaves the pledged property for himself, and if he did not use this right (paragraph 5 of Article 350.2);

5) in case of termination of the pledge agreement in the manner and on the grounds provided for by law, as well as in case of recognition of the pledge agreement as invalid;

6) by a court decision in the case provided for by paragraph 3 of Article 343 of this Code;

7) in case of seizure of the pledged property (Articles 167, 327), except for the cases provided for by paragraph 1 of Article 353 of this Code;

8) in case of sale of the pledged property in order to satisfy the claims of the previous pledgee (paragraph 3 of Article 342.1);

9) in the cases specified in paragraph 2 of Article 354 and Article 355 of this Code;

10) in other cases provided by law or agreement / 24, "www.site" /.

Upon termination of the pledge, the pledgee, who had the pledged property, is obliged to return it to the pledgor or other authorized person. The pledgor has the right to require the pledgee to perform all necessary actions aimed at making an entry on the termination of the pledge (Article 339.1)

Procedure for foreclosure on pledged property:

1. Enforcement of the pledged property shall be carried out by a court decision, unless the agreement between the pledgor and the pledgee provides for an out-of-court procedure for foreclosure of the pledged property.

If the agreement of the parties provides for an extrajudicial procedure for levying execution on the pledged property, the pledgee shall have the right to file a claim with the court for levying execution on the pledged property. In this case, the additional costs associated with foreclosure on the pledged property in a judicial proceeding shall be borne by the pledgee, unless he proves that the foreclosure of the pledged property or the sale of the pledged property in accordance with the agreement on extrajudicial foreclosure procedure were not carried out due to with the actions of the pledger or third parties.

When foreclosing and selling the pledged property, the pledgee and other persons must take measures necessary to obtain the greatest proceeds from the sale of the subject of pledge. A person who has suffered losses due to non-fulfillment of the specified obligation shall have the right to demand their compensation.

2. Satisfaction of the claim of the pledgee at the expense of the pledged property without recourse to the court (out of court) is allowed on the basis of an agreement between the pledgor and the pledgee, unless otherwise provided by law.

3. Execution on the subject of pledge may be levied only by a court decision in cases where:

the subject of pledge is the only residential premises owned by a citizen, except for the cases of conclusion of an agreement on extrajudicial foreclosure after the grounds for foreclosure arise;

the subject of pledge is property of significant historical, artistic or other cultural value for society;

pledgor - an individual in the prescribed manner recognized as missing;

the pledged property is the subject of a previous and subsequent pledge, in which different procedures for foreclosure on the subject of pledge are applied or different ways sale of the pledged property, unless otherwise provided by the agreement between the previous and subsequent pledgees;

the property is pledged to secure the fulfillment of various obligations to several pledgees, except for the case when an agreement between all co-pledges and the pledgor provides for an out-of-court procedure for foreclosing.

The law may provide for other cases in which it is not allowed to foreclose on pledged property extrajudicially.

Agreements concluded in violation of the requirements of this clause are void.

4. The parties have the right to include a clause on the out-of-court procedure for foreclosure in the pledge agreement.

5. An agreement on extrajudicial foreclosure of pledged property must be concluded in the same form as the pledge agreement for this property.

6. Foreclosure on the subject of pledge by a notary's writ of execution without going to court is allowed in the manner established by the legislation on the notary and the legislation of the Russian Federation on enforcement proceedings, in the event of non-performance or improper performance by the debtor of the obligation secured by the pledge, if the pledge agreement containing the condition on circulation foreclosure on mortgaged property out of court, certified by a notary.

7. An agreement on levying execution on the pledged property out of court must contain an indication of one method or several methods of selling the pledged property provided for by this Code, as well as the value (initial selling price) of the pledged property or the procedure for determining it.

If the agreement on foreclosure on the pledged property provides for several ways to sell the pledged property, the right to choose the method of sale belongs to the pledgee, provided that the agreement does not provide otherwise.

8. If foreclosure on the pledged property is carried out out of court, the pledgee or notary, who levies execution on the pledged property in the manner prescribed by the legislation on notaries, is obliged to send the pledgor, the pledgees known to them, as well as the debtor, a notice of the commencement of foreclosure on the subject pledge.

Realization of the pledged property is allowed not earlier than ten days from the date of receipt by the pledgor and the debtor of the notification of the pledgee or notary, unless another period is provided by law, and also, unless a longer period is provided by an agreement between the pledgee and the pledgor. In the cases provided for by banking legislation, the sale of the pledged movable property may be carried out before the expiration of the specified period, with a significant risk of a significant decrease in the value of the collateral compared to the sale price (initial sale price) specified in the notice.

The main problems and conflict situations that arise in collateral relations:

Highlighting the advantages of collateral as a way to secure bank loan obligations and noting its particular importance in the implementation of the rights and interests of the parties, it should be noted that the institution for the sale of pledged property should have wider opportunities for the sale of this property and not be limited only to the sale of property at auction.

Despite all its advantages, the pledge has significant disadvantages:

1. In most cases, he does not give the creditor confidence in the quick and complete satisfaction of his claims, since the foreclosure on the subject of pledge is most often carried out by a court decision. Then follows the implementation procedure, which requires significant funds and time.

2. Since the non-payers of loans are usually organizations registered as shortfalls in payments to the budget and extra-budgetary funds, if the funds in their current and current accounts are insufficient, the claims against the debtor are satisfied in the order determined (Article 855 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.)

3. Quite often the same property is pledged more than once, and each subsequent creditor-mortgagee does not know that his obligation is secured by a pledge of property already previously pledged by a pledge agreement, which adversely affects the repayment of the debt by the bank.

4. Often the collateral is illiquid goods in circulation, which, with a change in market conditions, are not always sold or sold at a loss by debtor organizations, which leads to an untimely repayment of the loan or even to its non-repayment.

1.4 Lending to legal entities and individuals

Lending to legal entities is a service in which a bank provides an organization with a loan for a certain period and receives an agreed percentage for this.

There are several options for classifying loans. They can be divided, first of all, according to the purpose of lending. Firstly, these are related, or targeted, loans provided for some specific and agreed-upon purpose in the contract. Secondly, unrelated - for use at the discretion of the borrower.

Also, loans are classified by terms: short-term, medium-term and long-term. In the banking practice of our country, loans for a period of more than two years are classified as long-term.

The following lending schemes are used according to the lending technique.

Loans in one amount are those that are issued by the bank to the client once and in full.

Loans through overdraft - when the bank, on the basis of a loan agreement, provides the client with the opportunity to spend more funds than is in the current account. Thus, the customer is allowed to have a debit balance.

Lines of credit - providing by the bank to the client the opportunity to receive funds on credit in a certain amount within a specified period. Credit lines are subdivided into simple (non-revolving), renewable (revolving), frame, on-call and current accounts. In addition, there are credit lines with an issue limit and with a debt limit.

According to the method of repayment, loans to legal entities are divided depending on when the payment occurs: either at the end of the loan period, or during the entire period in equal shares, or according to any other scheme specified in the agreement. In addition, the agreement usually prescribes the possibility and conditions for early repayment of the loan.

In order to protect themselves from non-repayment, banks most often require collateral from borrowers. They can be goods in a warehouse, vehicles, securities, real estate. In addition to collateral, there is a practice to confirm the solvency of the enterprise with guarantees (sureties) of the founders.

The service for providing loans to legal entities in many cases is individual. Rates and volumes of loans are determined based on the capabilities of the borrower, the size of the enterprise, the profitability and payback of the company. As a rule, banks have separate lending programs for small and medium-sized businesses. They offer their services in the field of microcredit, loans for tender participants and other loan products for legal entities.

A loan for individuals is a loan issued to the population for personal needs, for example, to buy a car, household appliances, real estate, etc.

Also, this definition is close in meaning to the term consumer credit (any loan that a borrower takes in order to spend the funds received on anything, with the exception of operations that can bring profit). It should be noted that many experts consider consumer credit to be a kind of retail credit, but there are other opinions, sometimes consumer credit is equated with retail credit in terms of value.

Types of loans:

According to the purpose of lending:

A loan for consumer needs (consumer credit) is a lending to individuals for the purpose of purchasing necessary goods of low value (usually up to 100 thousand rubles). This type of loan is characterized by high interest rates and low amounts that are provided as a loan to the borrower. A variety of this banking product is a commodity loan, which is issued for the purchase of a certain product, most often at retail outlets by employees of credit organizations.

Car loan - a loan for the purchase of a car, issued in the amount of 70 to 100% of the cost vehicle; As a rule, the purchased car acts as collateral for the loan. Also, a car loan is a kind of consumer loan, when a bank issues a targeted loan to buy a car. According to the loan agreement, the amount received cannot be spent on anything else. Most often, it is transferred directly to the seller of the car from whom you decide to purchase the vehicle.

Mortgage lending is a loan for the purchase of housing (apartment, house) both in the secondary and in the primary market. A type of mortgage is a mortgage consumer loan. It is a combination of signs and a mortgage loan and a consumer loan. For example, some banks provide large loans for any purpose, including consumer, from 300 thousand rubles to 25 million rubles secured by real estate owned by the borrower.

Non-purpose loan for consumer needs - the bank issues funds to the borrower for any purpose. A special kind of this banking product is a credit card, a personalized payment and settlement document in the form of a personalized plastic card issued by the issuing bank to its customers for non-cash payment, their purchase of goods and services on credit in a retail trade network.

There are other types of retail loans – loans for education, recreation, urgent needs, etc.

By payment method:

A loan repaid in installments (for example, a mortgage);

A loan repaid at a time (for example, a non-purpose express loan).

By availability of collateral:

Unsecured loans (for example, for urgent needs) A loan for which the bank requires collateral (car, apartment, etc.).

Accounting for accrued but not received on time (overdue) interest on loans is kept on separate personal accounts of balance accounts:

- in terms of liabilities - c. No. 61 301 “Deferred income from credit operations”;

— for the asset — on accounts No. 459 “Interest on loans not paid on time”, No. 325 “Overdue interest on extended interbank loans”.

Accounting for overdue debt on the main debt is kept on separate personal accounts of the balance sheet account No. 458 for accounting for overdue loans.

Accounting for overdue interest on loans is kept on the accounts of the balance sheet account No. 459 for accounting for overdue interest on loans, and on the interbank account on account No. 325, if the loan belongs to the first risk group. For the second and higher risk groups, overdue interest is recorded on off-balance accounts.

The scheme of reflection in accounting of these operations is as follows:

Credit for accounting for debt on a loan for the amount of the principal debt Debit 459

Loan 61,301 for the amount of accrued interest Accrual of interest on an issued but unrepaid loan is carried out in the terms and in the manner prescribed by the loan agreement.

Accounting for overdue loan indebtedness of banks on the main debt is kept on separate personal accounts of the balance sheet account No. 324 for accounting for overdue loans granted to other banks. Accounting for overdue interest on interbank loans is kept on balance sheet accounts 325 for accounting for overdue interest on interbank loans.

The basic scheme of reflection in accounting of these operations is as follows:

Credit 320 (321,322,323) for the principal amount Debit 325

Loan 61,301 for the amount of accrued interest.

credit solvency legal physical

1.5 Interbank loans

An interbank loan is a lending from one financial institution to another. As a result, the borrower receives the funds necessary for him, and the lender has the opportunity to profitably invest his own resources.

main creditor for financial market is the Central Bank, and other commercial banks can act both as a borrower and a lender in different situations. Mostly, borrowing of funds occurs on the basis of one-time loan agreements, but can also occur by placing deposits in other banks.

Bank lending is conditioned by operations that are an important component of the credit resources market. Here the bank has the opportunity to place its excess resources or purchase them.

Types of interbank credit Depending on the economic properties, credit resources can be divided into interbank loans and interbank deposits. According to organizational properties, interbank loans are divided into urgent and demand loans. Term loans can be issued for a period from 1 day to 1-3 years or more. Demand loans are issued for a period specified in the contract, after which the loan can be claimed by the lender upon prior notification.

Interbank loans are divided according to the interest rate: market, increased and preferential. The market rate is determined at the time of the loan, according to the existing supply and demand in the market. Interbank loans with an increased interest rate are formed when there is a high risk of providing funds to a particular borrower, with a forecast of an increase in the cost of credit resources or a violation of lending conditions. The preferential rate is an element of a differentiated approach and is used extremely rarely.

Interbank credit is also classified depending on the risks that lenders take. For each specific transaction, the creditor bank independently sets the amount, term and interest rate for the loan provided. According to the regulations of the Central Bank of Russia, the maximum allowable risk on loans should not exceed 25% of the funds available to the bank.

An interbank lending transaction can be executed in the following ways:

Credit agreement. This method is used for one-time transactions, when the lender and the borrower do not know each other well, as well as in the presence of existing relationships, if the term of transactions is from 7 to 30 days or longer. A preliminary agreement on a loan can be reached by telephone or facsimile, but a written document, signed and sealed by the parties, acquires legal force.

The IBC agreement provides for the amount of the loan, the level of the interest rate, the term of validity, the procedure for securing obligations, the rights and obligations of the parties, the responsibility for compliance with the terms of the agreement, the procedure for resolving disputes, etc. currently missing. The interest rate is set on the basis of the level prevailing in the market on the day of the conclusion of the contract. In the event of a prolongation of the latter, the rate is revised based on the level prevailing at that moment in the market. At the request of the creditor bank, the borrowing bank provides the documents necessary to assess its financial position (balance sheet, calculations of mandatory economic ratios). With the mutual consent of the parties, changes in the terms of the contract are formalized by an additional agreement. It is important that the loan agreement is a legal document and serves as a basis in case of resolving disputes in court.

General agreement on operations in the interbank market. Working on the market for short and ultra-short loans, banks make such a huge number of transactions per day that the signing of contracts for which would paralyze this market. Therefore, all transactions are concluded on the basis of general agreements on cooperation in the interbank market, which provide for the main provisions and techniques for conducting transactions.

In most cases, telephone and fax are used to exchange offers. Moreover, the parties make a reservation in the agreement about the legal force of documents transmitted by facsimile. However, in the event of litigation, documents received by fax are not accepted for consideration, so in practice banks are forced to work with each other on trust.

The use of the Reuters dealer network greatly simplifies the problem of organizing interbank relations: its participants have access to information about current quotes and terms of transactions offered by other participants, and can quickly change their own quotes. Confirmation of the conclusion of the transaction occurs quickly and securely via telex (telex is considered by the judicial authorities as a document that has legal force). All members of the dealer network organize their activities in the IBC market also within the framework of a general cooperation agreement. For the use of the dealer network, all participants pay a subscription fee. At present, many Russian banks use the services of the Reuters agency, especially large ones that have correspondent relations with foreign banks and need to quickly conduct transactions in foreign markets.

IBCs are provided in rubles and foreign currencies. Ruble loans are issued and repaid through correspondent accounts opened with the Bank of Russia, and foreign currency loans through correspondent accounts in foreign banks.

The presence of correspondent relations gives rise to the need for such a variety of interbank loans as overdraft loans: in the absence or insufficiency of funds necessary to carry out operations on the LORO account of the respondent bank, the correspondent bank can provide it with a loan to cover the resulting gap in the receipt and expenditure of funds. The existence of an agreement on the provision of such a loan and the terms of the loan (maximum overdraft, duration, interest rate, etc.) should be reflected in the agreement on the establishment of correspondent relations.

The level of interest rates on interbank loans depends on the term, amount, degree of reliability of the counterparty, the ratio of supply and demand for credit resources that has developed in the market.

Accounting for transactions related to interbank loans is carried out in the balance sheet of the creditor bank on account 320 “Loans granted to banks” (active account), and in the balance sheet of the borrowing bank - on account No. 313 “Loans received by credit institutions from credit institutions” ( passive account). In the event of an overdue debt on a loan, the amount of the debt is transferred to the overdue loans account.

Drawing up a loan agreement:

When drawing up a loan agreement, the main criteria are: drawing up in writing and signing by both parties. All main sections must also be completed, otherwise it can be considered invalid.

The main sections include:

1. General information contracting parties (full name of the bank, license number, all information about the borrower).

2. Subject of the agreement (type of loan, for how long it is provided, for what purpose, interest rate on the loan, loan amount, procedure for issuing a loan, procedure for repaying it, taking into account the payment of interest, the term of the agreement).

3. Rules and obligations of both parties (borrower and bank).

4. Responsibility of the borrower and the bank.

5. Resolution of controversial issues.

6. Legal addresses of both parties.

A standard loan agreement (not requiring notarization) is concluded in two copies. If the contract is secured by a pledge (mortgage or car loan), four copies should be drawn up and notarized. When drawing up a contract, it should be remembered that the amount of the contract must be written both in numerical form and in capital letters; all names, patronymics and surnames, as well as addresses, must be written without abbreviations.

The signing of the agreement is carried out directly by the representative of the bank and the borrower. One sample of the loan agreement (to which photocopies of the borrower's documents are attached) remains in the bank and is filed with the credit history, the second is provided to the client. Today, in parallel with the loan agreement, some banks ask to conclude an insurance agreement. Therefore, the client must provide the bank with the original insurance contract. The contract is valid from the moment of signing.

table 2

Kinds Bank of Russia loans and lending conditions

Bibliography:

1. Gorelaya, N. V. Organization of lending in a commercial bank: textbook. allowance / N.V. Gorelay. — M.: Forum: INFRA-M, 2012. — 207 p.

2. Kireev, V. L. Banking: textbook / V. L. Kireev, O. L. Kozlova. - M: KNORUS, 2012. - 239 p.

3. Kolpakova, G. M. Finance, money circulation and credit: textbook. manual for bachelors / G. M. Kolpakova. - 4th ed., revised. and additional — M.: Yurayt, 2012. — 538 p.

4. Krolivetskaya, L.P. Banking: credit activity of commercial banks / L.P. Krolivetskaya, E.V. Tikhomirova. — M.: KnoRus, 2009. — 277 p.