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Introduction
1.4 Features of the translation of terminological cliches and set phrases in scientific and technical literature
Chapter 2. Text analysis and identifying the influence of context on the translation of terms
2.1 Features of the influence of context on the translation of medical terms
2.2 Features of the translation of terminological cliches and set phrases when translating international applications
Conclusion
List of sources used
Application

Introduction

The theory of translation (N.V. Aristov, G.I. Bogin, S.A. Vasiliev, V.Z. Demyankov, A.N. Kryukov) considers translation as interpretation in the light of the interaction between the objective and the subjective based on knowledge as a language, and extra-linguistic reality. Interpretation is the process of understanding the results of processing scientific facts and observations in unified system. Of course, understanding is not self-evident in the process of translating a scientific text, but is associated with the problem of assimilating the text of the entire scientific discourse, and not its semantics. Based on understanding, the translator “rediscovers” the thoughts of the original when faced with the difficulties of translating a scientific text. We identify two main types of errors when translating scientific text: conceptual errors and errors related to the coherence of the text.

The main parameter of translation difficulty in a scientific text is the identification and understanding of the basic scientific terms contained in the original text. If the term and its implication are incorrectly identified, terminological errors may be recorded and, as a result, a pseudoscientific text may be created. To avoid pseudoscience L.M. Lapp recommends paying Special attention first to the model, then to the subject and logical plans of the text, which, in our opinion, contributes to the successful compression of the source text, i.e. correct understanding of the concept based on explicit semantic milestones, and then correct development, in other words, adequate presentation in another language.

When translating, it is, of course, necessary to take into account the expansion of the referent of the term, or abstraction. Abstraction is associated with generalization, movement from lower to higher. Violation of this process leads to a narrowing of the referent and, as a consequence, translation errors at the concept level.

Errors when translating a scientific text also correlate with the typological property of the text - coherence - the logical unfolding of a scientific text in which concepts are formed. Therefore, the translator’s efforts should be concentrated not on translating a single term, but on creating a potentially dynamic intertextual space - the conceptual sphere in order to recreate multiple information implications in a new text. L.M. Alekseeva calls such a model macrotext-centric.

Thus, the translation of a scientific text cannot be reduced to searching only for direct terminological correspondences. We define it as a complex thought process that involves identifying and conveying the meaning of scientific concepts.

Scientific, technical and business texts began to be studied by linguists relatively recently, from the 30s to 40s of the 20th century. Today, the language of science has become one of the main full-fledged and independent objects of research, along with the language of fiction, literary colloquial speech and traditional dialects. The big and controversial general philological question about the relationship of the language of science to the literary language, to the national language is not the subject of applied linguistics.

Recently, interest in scientific text and in the languages of science and technology has intensified in connection with the new tasks posed to applied linguistics by the modern scientific and technological revolution (automatic processing of texts in natural language, standardization of terminology, scientific and technical translation, creation of terminological dictionaries and data banks, linguistic support automated systems). The solution to various applied problems is based on a multidimensional linguistic analysis of a scientific text as a collection of different texts in a given branch of knowledge.

terminological cliché set phrase

A special text always presents, represents one or another scientific, technical or organizational and business knowledge. Let's consider the process of forming a special text using the example of scientific texts. Scientific knowledge (including technical knowledge) is a set of ideal images in the human mind that reflect phenomena, properties, relationships and laws of the material world in the field of science and technology.

However, special scientific knowledge, undoubtedly, acts as the main factor in the formation of a scientific text. It is multi-linked, multi-stage, associative, starting from general information about one or another branch of knowledge and ending with deep concepts associated with individual narrow areas. For example, a philologist has a certain sufficient level of general philological knowledge in the field of language and literature and at the same time, as a rule, he is a specialist in one or another relatively closed area - in word formation, phonetics, folklore, textual criticism, etc.

In general, the problem of scientific and technical translation in science has been studied quite well. In our work, we are interested in the correlation between the translation of terms and context, so much attention is also paid to the concept of context and its study.

Thus, the purpose of this work is to consider the features of the translation of set phrases and terminological cliches (based on scientific and technical texts and dissertations).

The subject of the research is translations of scientific articles and dissertations.

The object of the study is the features of translation of set phrases and terminological clichés based on the object of study.

The hypothesis of the study is to postulate that a scientific and technical text has its own peculiarities of translating stable phrases and terminological clichés.

In connection with the goal set in the work, it is necessary to solve the following problems of a theoretical and practical nature:

Describe the scientific and technical language of presentation.

Consider the general concept of the term in translation theory, various approaches of scientists to the interpretation of this concept.

Indicate and characterize the features of translation of terms in scientific and technical literature.

Consider the concept of context, the problems of studying context in modern science and highlight the main problems of studying the influence of context on the translation of terms.

Practically confirm the main provisions put forward in the theoretical part of the work.

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of considering the features of translation of set phrases and terminological cliches based on scientific texts and dissertations

1.1 Characteristics of scientific and technical language

As a result of changes in the scientific paradigm that began in the 70s. and expressed in the fact that language is conceived not as an immanent system, but as a system constituting a constitutive property of a person, the attention of linguists focused on the cognitive aspects of language, indicated by W. Humboldt, who believed that “to study the functioning of language in its widest scope” - is to examine it “in relation to the activities of thinking and sensory perception.” This vision of language puts great emphasis on the concept of linguistic communication, of which scientific translation is a part.

There are many definitions of the concept of scientific and technical translation, translation of scientific and technical text.

For example, Z.N. Volkova believes that the main issue in translation theory is the problem of translatability. By “translatability” this author understands the possibility of accurately conveying the thoughts of the original author with all their nuances, emerging associations and preserving the author’s style by means of the target language. Many prominent linguists abroad have questioned this possibility.

Indeed, one cannot completely deny the thesis of untranslatability, since in any language there are always linguistic categories for which there are no correspondences in another language, and this, to one degree or another, affects the invariance of meaning during translation. However, lack of correspondence is a relatively rare occurrence.

A.V. adheres to a similar position. Fedorov, who points out that only those individual elements of the original language that appear to be deviations from general norm language, tangible in relation to this particular language, i.e. mainly dialectisms and those words of social jargon that have a pronounced local connotation. Their function as local words disappears in translation. The invariance of meaning may also suffer when translating individual elements of phraseology. But in general, the entire practice of translation speaks in favor of the principle of translatability, and this is especially true in relation to scientific and technical literature.

Any scientific and technical text, regardless of its content and nature, can be completely accurately translated from one language to another, even if the original treats a branch of knowledge for which there is no corresponding terminology in the target language. In such cases, the translator most often resorts to interpretation, and the formation of the necessary terminology is carried out in the field of production or by those scientific circles that deal with these issues. The appearance of new terms does not introduce dissonance into the general structure of the language; new terms are quickly assimilated, because terminology by its nature is the most mobile and changeable sublanguage of any language.

In this work we will adhere to the position of L.M. Alekseeva and E.A. Kharitonova, who believe that the translation of a scientific text is special type communication, and the translator’s speech activity model is one of the components of cognitive activity. It should be noted that despite the development of a general translation methodology, the features and difficulties of translating the terms of a scientific text have been little studied, while they play a fundamental role in conceptualization.

The features of the scientific and technical text were most clearly highlighted by V.N. Komissarov. He points out that the language of scientific and technical literature is characterized by the following features:

1. Lack of emotional coloring. This feature basically determines the absolute translatability of scientific and technical texts, since the reader should not have any extraneous associations, he should not read between the lines, admire wordplay and puns, take the side of one hero and burn with anger towards another. The goal of the author of a scientific and technical text is to accurately describe this or that phenomenon or action, this or that object or process; he must convince the reader of the correctness of his views and conclusions, appealing not to feelings, but to reason. True, when translating polemical speeches one can encounter some emotional intensity of the text, however, even in this case, the style of the original must be conveyed with caution, taking into account the norms of the Russian scientific and technical language.

2. Strive for clarity, clarity and conciseness. The desire for clarity is expressed in the use of clear grammatical structures and lexical units, as well as in the wide use of terminology. As a rule, generally accepted, established terms are used, although there are also so-called terminoids (terms in circulation in a narrow field, such as local and brand names, etc.), which significantly complicate translation, because often missing even from industry dictionaries. The desire for brevity is expressed, in particular, in the widespread use of infinitive, gerundial and participle phrases, abbreviations and symbols.

3. The special semantic load of some words of everyday colloquial speech. Rethinking words in everyday speech is one of the productive methods of constructing new terms. Therefore, there are many words that belong to the vocabulary of everyday speech and have the nominative function of the term. For example: put out - in everyday speech - “to put out the fire”, and for sailors - “to go out to sea”, stroke - in ordinary speech - “blow”, and for mechanics - “piston stroke”, hoe - generally “hoe”, and for a builder - “backhoe”, etc. This property of words is a particularly dangerous source of difficulties and errors for a novice translator.

4. The frequency of use of words from the main vocabulary differs from the general literary language. The vocabulary of scientific and technical literature is much poorer than the vocabulary of works of art. Therefore, the frequency of individual elements of the general vocabulary of scientific and technical literature is higher than the frequency of individual elements of the vocabulary of artistic works, while the characteristic features of the scientific and technical style include literary and bookish words and expressions, foreign borrowings, the predominance of subject-logical meanings and the rarity of figurative and contextual meanings.

5. The frequency of use and relative importance of certain grammatical forms and constructions differ from the general literary language. In accordance with the statistical data of Kaufman S.I. the frequency of use of active and passive structures in fiction is expressed as 98% and 2%, respectively, while for technical literature the ratio of the use of these structures is expressed as 67% and 33%. Consequently, in technical literature Passive Voice is used 15 times more often than in fiction. The definition is used 3 times more often in technical literature than in fiction. The prepositional position of a noun in the role of a determiner in fiction accounts for 37%, and for other cases - 63%. In the technical literature, the opposite picture is observed, namely 62% and 38%, respectively.

According to research by Nosenko I.A. and samples of 100,000 word uses, non-finite forms are used more often in technical literature than in fiction (-4800 = 260 and - 3850 = 210, respectively, excluding combinations of infinitives with modal verbs). A particularly significant discrepancy is observed for the definition of 2300 for technical texts and ~1090 for literary prose. However, the frequency of impersonal verb forms in combination with transitive verbs is higher for fiction (~700) than for technical literature (~160).

6. Rarity of use of idioms. Idiomatic phrases are unique indecomposable expressions that have a specific meaning, often independent of the elements they contain. Idioms almost always have some emotional connotation and therefore do not fit into scientific and technical texts. Often, idioms do not have a very clear meaning, which fundamentally contradicts the spirit of scientific and technical language.

7. Use of abbreviations and symbols. This and the following characteristic are a consequence of the desire for brevity and clarity.

8. The use of special expressions and lexicographical structures (such as: centers, and/or, on/off, etc.).

Based on the above, we can conclude that the listed characteristics of a scientific and technical language should serve for a novice translator as a kind of program for improving his qualifications, because they indicate those moments that require, in comparison with others, more thorough assimilation.

As already indicated, in cases of difficulties in translating a scientific text, the translator must resort to interpretation, and this is only possible if he is familiar with the subject of the text. Therefore, not only knowledge of the peculiarities of the language of the translated text helps in translation, it is also necessary to be a specialist in this field.

As A.V. believes Fedorov, a necessary condition for achieving accurate translation is a good familiarity with the subject treated in the original. The translator must know the subject so completely that, in any form of presentation in the original, he is able to correctly convey the content of what is being presented without losing information. This is not always easy. For example, in the sentence - "High strength to size and cost are basic factors in the evaluation of materials."

it is necessary to reveal the meaning of the combination of words “High strength to size”, which is only possible if you understand the essence of the matter:

“High strength-to-dimensional ratio and cost are the main criteria when evaluating materials.”

The highlighted words compensate for the loss of information contained in the original that would occur in a literal translation.

Only ignorance of the subject can push the translator to preserve the word order of the original when translating the following sentence:

"In this case one curve passes through each point of the plane."

"In this case, one curve passes through each point of the plane."

It turns out that one curve covers the entire plane, since it passes through all its points. In fact, the original talks about a family of curves; only rearranging the word order gives the correct translation:

"In this case, one curve passes through each point of the plane."

If some of the author’s thoughts are not clearly stated, the translator is obliged to present these passages in clear literary language. However, under no circumstances should one take the path of interpretation or development of the author’s thoughts. This may lead the translator down a line that does not correspond to the author's intention.

You also cannot rely only on the theory and practice that are well known to the translator: the original author may be talking about something completely new, often contradicting existing views. In other words, the translator must be able to independently reason on a given subject, correctly understand even the unclearly expressed thoughts of the original author, present these thoughts in good Russian language, without distorting the author’s thoughts one iota and without resorting to interpretation. When faced with difficulties, a translator should never allow himself to make a “more or less correct” translation. He must either overcome the difficulty or have the courage to admit his inability to translate a given word, expression or even sentence and leave it untranslated.

This paragraph addressed the problem of familiarization with the subject of the text being translated. In the course of the presentation, we came to the conclusion that familiarity with the subject is so important that it should be put before the point requiring a good knowledge of the language of the original being translated and, if you have to make a choice between two possible translators, one of whom is excellently familiar with the subject, but less knowledgeable language, and the other has a weaker knowledge of the subject, but is fluent in the original language, then the choice usually falls on the first candidate: dictionaries do not replace good knowledge of the subject.

However, even despite knowledge of the subject of the text being translated, to translate a scientific and technical text it is necessary to understand that the basis of any scientific text is terminology. Therefore, in the next paragraph we will consider the general concept of a term in translation theory.

Thus, revealing the specifics of a separate subtype of translation, a special theory of translation studies three series of factors that must be taken into account when describing translations of this type. Firstly, the very fact that the original belongs to a special functional style can influence the nature of the translation process and require the translator to use special methods and techniques. Secondly, focus on such an original can predetermine the stylistic characteristics of the translation text, and, consequently, the need to select such linguistic means that characterize a similar functional style already in the TL. And finally, as a result of the interaction of these two factors, actual translation features associated with both general features and differences between the linguistic characteristics of similar functional styles in the FL and TL, as well as with the special conditions and tasks of the translation process of this type. In other words, a special theory of translation studies the impact on the translation process of the linguistic features of a certain functional style in a foreign language, a similar functional style in the TL, and the interaction of these two series of linguistic phenomena.

Within each functional style, it is possible to identify some linguistic features, the influence of which on the course and result of the translation process is very significant. For example, in the scientific and technical style, these are the lexical and grammatical features of scientific and technical materials and, first of all, the leading role of terminology and special vocabulary. In the newspaper information style, along with the important role of political terms, names and titles, this is the special nature of the headlines, the widespread use of newspaper cliches, the presence of elements of colloquial style and jargon, etc. In addition to such general features, in each language a similar functional style also has specific linguistic features.

1.2 General concept of terminological clichés and set phrases in translation theory

The study of the scientific understanding of terms and their features is not only included in the scope of research in the science of translation studies. Lexicology also deals with these problems.

Among the scientists who made a significant contribution to the study of terms and the language of terminology, we can name the following names: A.V. Superanskaya, who dealt with problems of general terminology, B.N. Golovin and R.Yu. Kobrin (problems of linguistic foundations of terminology), T.R. Kiyak, E.S. Troyanskaya (problems of studying the features of the style of scientific presentation), E.F. Skorokhodko (issues of translation of terms in English technical literature), T.M. Pyankova, etc.

L.M. Alekseeva and E.A. Kharitonov consider the term as a verbal symbolization of specific knowledge, a “compress of thought.” The term is not understood as a given, unchangeable, closed unit. A term is a contradictory linguistic unit: it is unambiguous and polysemantic, produced and reproduced, neutral and emotional, dependent and independent of context.

Terminological clichés are understood as stereotypical words and phrases. Currently, they occupy a special place in the arsenal of lexical means, but are most often found in periodical publications of a political, scientific and technical nature. Terminological cliches include idioms, set expressions and speech stereotypes, a set of ready-made phrases. For example, in the table below we show the translation of some terminological cliches from English into Russian.

The term is not static, but dynamic like any other unit of language, since it is determined by the contradictions of the language itself. Therefore, the term “should be considered not as a dead product, but as a creative process” (W. Humboldt). The term not only informs us about the world of reality, but also contains thoughts about it, i.e. the term is self-reflective. The term theorizes information and creates an ontological model of knowledge. L.M. Alekseeva rightly notes: “The nature of the term is manifested in its property of being the result of mental activity.”

Therefore, the term is both informational and intellectual.

The dialectical and contradictory nature of the term determines the translation process as not a substitutive informational one, but something else. As a consequence of this, in the aspect of the substitutive-transformational approach to translation, the term cannot be adequately translated while preserving its inherent ontological properties.

Difficulties in translation are caused by the emergence of new terms. Terms form the most mobile lexical layer: in new, developing branches of science and technology, new concepts constantly arise that require new terms. Terms are born, changed, clarified, discarded, and dictionaries usually do not keep up with the development of terminology.

A different, narrower definition of the term is given by N.V. Aristov. A term is a word devoid of emotional connotation, having a strictly defined, specially specified meaning in a given field of science or technology. Terms should not cause any extraneous associations that could negatively affect the meaning of what is being said. The translator must understand the term unambiguously, which is especially difficult when the term is taken from the vocabulary of everyday speech. If there is no term for a given concept in Russian terminology, the translator should try to create one. On the contrary, if the author of the English original resorts to a descriptive device, speaking about a concept for which there is a Russian term, the translator is obliged to use this term.

1. Terms, which are single words, are often formed by using productive methods of word formation. Therefore, it is useful to remember the meaning of the main word-forming affixes in English, which are productive in constructing scientific and technical terms.

Suffixes - er, - or are used to form nouns denoting specialists, machines, mechanisms, devices, etc.: estimator-designer, calculator; excavator - earthmoving machine, excavator; bulldozer - bulldozer.

The suffixes - ist, - ant, as in the Russian language, are used to form nouns denoting specialists: chemist - chemist; consultant - consultant.

Suffixes - ing - ment express processes, although they are also found in nouns denoting objects:

curing-curing, care of concrete (during the hardening period); replacement-replacement, replacement; building-building, structure; embankment - embankment, dam.

Suffixes - ion, - ance, - ence, - ship, - hood, - ure, - ness express mainly abstract concepts, actions, states, phenomena: abrasion - erasing, wearing out: maintenance - technical care, routine repairs; resilience - elasticity, impact strength; relationship - relationship, connection; likelihood-probability; perviousness - permeability; flexibility - flexibility, elasticity; electricity - electricity (the vast majority of English words ending in - ty are translated into Russian by words ending in - awn and - stvo). It is clear that the listed suffixes do not necessarily apply to nouns of only the indicated nature. For example; neighborhood - microdistrict, excavation - excavation, excavation - are specific concepts.

The meanings of the most common prefixes are usually given in all general dictionaries. Knowledge of these meanings is mandatory for the translator, because Many words constructed using prefixes are not included in dictionaries. Here is an example taken from a text on mechanization of construction production:

"It is better to overplant than to underplant." The meaning of the prefix over: over-, over-, above-, excessively; meaning of the prefix under: under-, below - necessary or usual. From here, knowing that the verb “to plant” in this context means “to mechanize,” we get the translation:

“It is better to mechanize too much than to mechanize too little.”

The prefix "as" - used most often in scientific and technical literature and in conjunction with Participle II, means that the object is in the form or condition that it acquired as a result of the work done on it. For example: as-quarried - in the form in which (the material) comes from the quarry, straight from the quarry; as-cast - in cast form; as-rolled - in rolled form (without additional processing); as-received - in the form received, etc.

2. Terms are often formed by giving an existing word (often related to the vocabulary of everyday speech) a new meaning, which is sometimes radically different from the old one (for example: lip and flange; finger - finger and latch, etc.) Based on the translation of an unfamiliar term in its entirety in its literal sense it is impossible, because the latter only rarely corresponds to its actual content, for example:

"Screen analyzes showed that there was deficiency in cobbles."

In this case, the word "cobble" cannot be translated as "cobblestone". We are talking about sieve analysis of natural coarse aggregate and the word “cobbles” must be understood as stones with a diameter of 8 to 15 cm:

“Sieve analysis revealed a lack of fraction 8-15 cm.”

3. The term in most cases is a complex word or a set phrase. Term - a compound word is often a lexical construction built on the basis of the attributive use of a noun. As mentioned above, sometimes when translated, all elements of a term - a compound word - receive an equivalent reflection: wind pressure - wind pressure; motor sweeper - mechanical broom.

In other cases, there is no lexical correspondence whatsoever: mountain flour kieselguhr, diatomaceous earth; pot hole - pothole (on the road); sound pressure level meter - sound level meter.

Intermediate categories include those complex words in which individual elements have acquired a specific meaning, far from the dictionary one. For example, in the term calf-dozer, the word calf has nothing to do with “calf” and only indicates the small size of the bulldozer. * In the term "table slate" the word "table" has also lost its direct meaning and in the Russian equivalent "roofing slate" we do not find a lexical correspondence for it.

4. Since terms - complex words in most cases have a two-component composition, it is useful to state them in some system general rules translation of such terms.

a) If the first element means a substance or material, and the second element means an object, then the complex term is translated into Russian according to the scheme: “adjective - noun”: concrete pile - concrete pile; steel bridge - steel bridge.

b) If the first element is a substance or material, and the second is an object that affects this material or produces it, then the translation is made according to the scheme:

"noun in the noun. Pad. (2nd element) 4 - noun in the noun. Pad. (1st element)": sand classifier - classifier of sand; steam superheater - steam superheater.

However, sometimes the translation is made using prepositions: mud mixer - clay mixer. Or both elements merge when translated into one word: concrete mixer concrete mixer; stone breaker - stone crusher.

Nevertheless, the main method always gives positive results (clay stirrer, stone crusher), which help to find the most successful translation.

c) If the first element is an object, and the second is an action aimed at this object, then the translation is done according to the scheme: “a noun in nominal pad. (2nd element) - a noun in gender pad. (1st element) ": stone breaking - crushing stone; water treatment - water purification.

d) If the first element is an object, and the second is an action performed by this object or with the help of this object, then the translation is done according to the following schemes: “noun in noun. (2nd element) - noun in gender. ( 1st element)", "noun in noun. pad. (2nd element) + noun in creative pad. or prepositional pad. (1st element)": wave propagation - propagation of waves; concrete setting - setting, hardening of concrete; water treatment - water treatment: membrane water proofing - waterproofing using a membrane.

Due to the similarity of the constructions of the English terms given in paragraphs c) and d), when translating them, it is necessary to carefully delve into the semantics of both individual elements and the combination of elements that form the term itself. Semantic analysis determines the choice of Russian translation scheme. In the first two examples of point d) the action is performed by the first elements themselves (the concrete hardens, the wave spreads) and the translation is done according to the scheme of point c). In the third example, the action is performed using the first element (water treatment), which determines the choice of translation scheme (compare with the second example of point c) water purification). From here it is clear that in order to achieve an adequate translation, it is necessary, among other things, to take into account the contextual environment of the term. The latter also determines the grammatical number of the Russian equivalent of the first element (wave propagation - the spread of waves or waves), which in English does not receive grammatical design, since it is only the basis of a noun.

e) If the first element is an object, and the second is its property, then the translation is performed according to the scheme: “a noun in the nominative case (2nd element) - a noun in the gender case (1st element)”: concrete strength - concrete strength; sea depths - depths of the sea. The last example can have the meanings: "the depths of the sea" and "the depths of the seas." The choice between these three options is determined by the context.

f) If the first element is part of the second, then the translation is performed according to the scheme: “adjective (1st element) - noun (2nd element)”: jaw crusher - jaw crusher; ball mill - ball mill.

g) If the second element is part of the first, then the translation is done according to the scheme: “noun in the nominative case. (2nd element) - noun in the gender case. (1st element)"" excavator bucket - excavator bucket; piston ring - piston ring. For the last example, a more correct translation is piston ring; however, the recommended translation still gives positive result, which makes it easier to find the right option.

h) Sometimes the second element of points e) and b) does not directly relate to the first element. This circumstance should be taken into account and, if necessary, the translation should be carried out according to other schemes: tank pressure - pressure (gas, liquid) in the tank; cement retarder - cement retarder. Words enclosed in brackets must be supplemented to reveal the essence of the term (compensation for losses).

The examples given do not cover all possible constructions and methods of translation and should be considered as a general guide to the translation of terms - complex words of a two-component composition. * Deviations from the stated rules on all points are possible.

5. If in difficult words, built on the basis of the attributive use of nouns, the individual components are not formalized grammatically, i.e. do not have morphological inflections and are connected to each other without the help of function words, then the terms - stable phrases consist of elements, the mutual connection of which is formalized with the help of morphological means and function words. For example: scientific management of labor - scientific organization of labor; joint on the bevel - miter connection; joiner's glue - carpenter's glue, etc. Due to the grammatical design of the elements of the terms under consideration, translating them does not present any particular difficulties, except for cases when individual elements of the terms acquire specific meanings that are not inherent in them in other phrases. So, for example: in the term "dead man" - anchor bed, anchor pile - the original meaning of the words "dead" and "man" is completely lost.

Thus, based on the study of the positions of scientists regarding the definition of a term, we can say that terms are stable phrases, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meaning of individual elements, usually given in industry dictionaries, just as basic idiomatic expressions are given in general dictionaries, phraseological unities and fusions.

When translated into Russian, a term can take the form of a single word, or it can be a Russian stable phrase: as mentioned above, the phraseological funds of two different languages do not coincide.

1.3 Signs of terminological clichés and set phrases as the basis for their classification

As stated earlier, a term (including scientific and technical terms and terms of organizational and administrative documentation) is a unit of any specific natural or artificial language (word, phrase, abbreviation, symbol, combination of a word and letter-symbols, combination of a word and a number). symbols), which, as a result of a spontaneously formed or special conscious collective agreement, has a special terminological meaning that can be expressed either in verbal form or in one or another formalized form and quite accurately and completely reflects the main features that are essential at a given level of development of science and technology the corresponding concept. A term is a word that is necessarily correlated with a specific unit of the corresponding logical-conceptual system in terms of content.

B.N. Golovin and R.Yu. Kobrin offer their own concept on the basis of which they classify terms. The deep characteristic of terms allows us to separate them from other units of language and dismember the entire set of terms. This deep feature of terms is their designation of general concepts. Since there are several types of general concepts, some different types terms.

First of all, the most general concepts of matter and its attributes are highlighted, which are called categories (matter, space, time, quantity, quality, measure, and others). Accordingly, terms that denote categories are a type of category terms.

Further, at each stage of the development of human knowledge, in each era, a certain number of general scientific and general technical concepts appear that are used in any science (branch of technology) (system, structure, method, law in science, reliability in technology). Adjacent to them are the general concepts of methodological sciences - philosophy, general systems theory, cybernetics, computer science and others; some of the concepts of these sciences can be used, like general scientific concepts, in various fields of knowledge (for example, information, element).

It should be borne in mind that general scientific (general technical) and interdisciplinary concepts are such not because they are used in a number of branches of knowledge, but because they have a common content, which allows them to be used in different industries, in most cases adding specific features to the general content. As an example, we can cite the general scientific term method, the interdisciplinary term analytical method and the specific scientific terms mathematical method, Monte Carlo method (compare also the interdisciplinary term cluster - a small group of particles, from the English cluster - pile, cluster, bunch, bunch, and its applications in physics, chemistry, astronomy, biology, sociology, general systems theory, as well as in science and computer science).

Finally, in each area of knowledge and activity there are specific concepts of varying degrees of generality: from the largest classes (genus) to the smallest species, as well as concepts that reflect aspects of consideration of these classes. These two types of concepts are called species and aspect; Geological concepts can be given as examples: subdelta (specific concept relative to the concept delta, geochemistry of oil, oil reserves (aspect concepts).

All of the above types of concepts find their linguistic embodiment in types of terms. Category terms, general scientific and general technical terms, interdisciplinary terms, and special terms are distinguished (examples were given when listing the types of concepts).

It is known that typology is the basis of classification. In this sense, the typology of terms described here - the division of terms according to their most important features - represents the actual terminology classification of terms. The basis for all subsequent classifications are various individual characteristics of terms - content, formal, functional, intra- and extra-linguistic. All these classifications can be associated with the sciences and fields of knowledge in which they are used.

The first classification of terms by content, used primarily in philosophy, is the division into observational terms and theoretical terms. Behind observation terms there are classes of real objects, and behind theoretical terms there are abstract concepts that usually depend on a specific theory or concept. This division is sufficient to solve terminological problems of philosophy (philosophy of science), but to solve philosophical problems of terminology it is necessary to build a more detailed classification, since the degree of abstraction of concepts denoted by theoretical terms varies: from philosophical categories to general scientific and special scientific concepts.

Thus, in the taxonomy of animals, above taxa lie the so-called taxonomic categories (non-specific objects) - species, subfamilies, classes. It is important that this hierarchy can also be expressed in the formal structure of terms. In particular, in the same system of K. Linnaeus, the names of taxa (terms of observation) include the names of taxonomic categories: Betula pubescens - downy birch.

The second classification of terms according to content - according to the object of the name - is their distribution according to areas of knowledge or activity, or, in other words, according to special areas. The list of these areas can be summarized as follows: science, technology, production; economic basis; superstructure Based on this sociological scheme, it is possible to formulate a list of headings included in the classification of terms by field of knowledge.

In the field of science, a group of scientific terms is identified. It falls, generally speaking, into as many classes as there are sciences at a certain stage of scientific and technological progress; and in each class of physical, chemical and other terms there are as many groupings (terminal systems) as there are various independent theories for describing physical, chemical and other objects and patterns. As for the differences between the so-called scientific-technical and socio-political terminology, then, first of all, political sciences (theory of state and law, international relations and others), according to the unanimous opinion of experts, are included in the number of social sciences, and therefore political terms included in many social terms.

Further, all these terms denote scientific concepts to the same extent as so-called scientific and technical terms; the only difference is that the former designate the concepts of social sciences, and the latter - the concepts of natural and technical sciences. Therefore, if you strive for accuracy, then it is advisable to talk about the terms of the social, natural and technical sciences and about technical terms and terminologies, and not about scientific, technical and socio-political terminology. However, the terms of the social sciences have a number of specific features that contrast them with the terms of the natural and technical sciences.

This:

1) direct, clearly expressed dependence of the terms of social sciences on a certain theory, a certain system of views. On closer examination, the terms of the natural and technical sciences also depend on theory, which, in turn, is determined by worldview (for example, parallelism in geometry, mass in physics), but this dependence can be obscured. In terms of social sciences, it is part of their content structure;

2) a unique implementation of the systematic feature. Along with harmonious terminological systems that reflect complete theories (political economy, Hegel’s philosophical system), there are areas of knowledge for which systems of concepts and terminological systems have not been built (for example, description of dance, fashion and others);

3) the presence of terms with blurred boundaries of the concepts they denote, for example, terms denoting general concepts of a social nature (personality, ideal);

4) wider development of synonymy and polysemy than in term systems of natural and technical sciences (language is a polysemantic term);

5) the inclusion of an evaluative factor in the semantics of terms (compare terms such as renegade, red, white, and green “green parties”).

In the field of production and technology, technical terms operate. These are units of language denoting machines, mechanisms, tools, operations. Technical terms differ from scientific terms primarily in that they are less dependent on the concepts of the people using them, although such dependence does exist. Nowadays, technical terms often penetrate into scientific publications themselves.

In the sphere of the economic basis and production relations, there are, on the one hand, terms of the language of description (in the languages of political economy, concrete economy) and, on the other hand, terms of the language of servicing the economy. The lexical units of the service language are combinations of terms such as the commissioning of the total (useful) area of residential buildings, which are called indicators.

Indicators are a set of characteristics characterized by the given data. The name of the indicator includes terms meaning:

a) characterized (measured) object of the economy (products, workers);

b) states, properties of these objects and the processes that occur with them (presence or number (of workers), production (of products));

c) a formal method (algorithm) for calculating an indicator, for example, volume (of product sales).

Within the superstructure, the administrative and political sphere (which includes defense, justice, foreign relations and others) and the socio-cultural sphere (health, science, culture, education and others) are distinguished.

In the administrative-political sphere, in particular, the terms of the language of management are distinguished, including the terms of office work, the language of diplomacy, and military languages. True, some military terms are closer to technical ones, others to economic ones, and a third to scientific terms. Military terms are a typical example of interface terms. Using their example, it can be shown that in general the boundary between terms distinguished by field of knowledge is quite precarious. Thus, many terms of technical sciences can simultaneously be technical terms (rolling, drawing, annealing, etc.), and many document management terms also appear in the terminology of office work (act, archive). Nevertheless, the classification of terms according to the object of naming is extremely important: it reflects the level of science and development of the social structure at a certain stage.

In addition to the terms of social sciences (political economy, sociology, ethnography), the socio-cultural sphere includes the so-called socio-political vocabulary. A strict distinction between terms (of social sciences) and socio-political vocabulary is important, in particular, for the construction of information languages.

Classification of terms according to the object of naming within individual areas of knowledge is the most detailed classification of terms.

The third meaningful classification of terms is based on the logical category of the concept that is denoted by the term. The terms of objects (mammals), processes (multiplication, office work, compression) are distinguished; signs, properties (cold brittleness), quantities and their units (current strength, ampere).

Linguistic classifications of terms are based on the characteristics of terms as words or phrases of a certain language.

Classification according to the content (semantic) structure allows us to distinguish unambiguous terms (bypass, nut, chromosome) and polysemantic terms, that is, those that have two or more meanings within one terminology system (court - 1. a set of judges and assessors;

2. court hearing;

3. courthouse). From the point of view of semantics, terms are distinguished - free phrases (muffle furnace, certificate of residence) and stable (including phraseological) phrases (universal gravity).

The classification of terms according to their formal structure is very detailed. First of all, the terms-words are highlighted. They, in turn, are divided into root (water), derivatives (preposition, divider, re-grading), complex (social studies, biosphere), compound abbreviations (capital investments), as well as words of an unusual structure - telescopic (radio tape recorder - from tape recorder + radio), with reverse order of sounds, chain formations (synthesis gas, 2,5-dimethyl-5-ethyl-3-isopropylheptane, ridge-ridge-ridge system).

Next, terms and phrases are highlighted. The most common structures here are combinations of a noun with an adjective, a noun with a noun in the indirect case (degree of freedom), a noun with another noun as an appendix (seamstress-minder). There are also verbose terms, sometimes consisting of more than 5 words (filtration potential of spontaneous polarization in a well - GOST term).

Characteristic phenomena in the formal structure of terms are truncation of single-word terms (cinema - from film or cinema) and abbreviation (abbreviation) of multi-word terms. There are many types of abbreviations: alphabetic (k.p.d.), sound (ZhEK), syllabic (gorkom), word-like (sigran - from synthetic granite), completely coinciding with the word (GAZ from: Gorky Automobile Plant); in addition, combinations of abbreviations with words (MHD generator - from magnetohydrodynamic generator).

Terms of a specific formal structure using elements of artificial languages constantly appear; symbols-words (x-particle), model-words (i-beam, that is, an I-beam similar to the letter I). The classification by motivation/unmotivation shows that there are terms whose meaning may or may not be explained by their structure. Here we distinguish between the terms fully motivated (gas pipeline), partially motivated (Parkinson's disease), completely unmotivated (diamond), and falsely motivated (lightning rod).

Depending on the source language, the terms are primordial (sensor), borrowed (display - shal, crosscut - German), hybrid (metallurgy, anti-icing).

From the point of view of terms belonging to parts of speech, terms-nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs are distinguished. For example, among linguistic terms there are nouns (voice, type), adjectives (unmotivated, parasynthetic, coordinating). Among the terms of musicology there are adverb terms (piano, pianissimo). Calculations show that there are much more terms - names of objects in percentage terms than terms - names of features. And the designations of features in terms often appear in an objectified form.

The classification of terms by authorship reflects a sociological approach to terms. Collective and individual terms are known in this regard. Thus, the term helicopter was created by Leonardo da Vinci, the term industry was created by N.M. Karamzin, the term sociology - O. Comte.

According to the scope of use, universal (for many related areas), unique (for one area) and conceptual-author terms are distinguished; For example, linguistic terms can denote phenomena characteristic of all languages (phonetics), for one or several languages (ergativity) or only for one approach (glossematics - L. Elmolev’s term).

Features of newspaper information text

Newspaper text has a number of features that complicate the translator's work. The structure, manner of presenting information and features of vocabulary require great care when creating an adequate translation. Newspaper information texts are among the special genre texts. Hence the difficulty in translating them.

Translation of genre texts

Newspaper texts are distinguished by their special vocabulary, emotional intensity and, for the most part, brevity. However, it is also full of all sorts of artistic means of expression, such as epithets, metaphors and comparisons. This brings newspaper information text closer to fiction.

Newspaper texts often have a narrow focus and are filled with certain terms. Thus, in newspaper articles you can often find the names of political parties, government agencies, public organizations and terms associated with their activities, for example:

House of Commons

Trades Union Congress

Security Council

term of office, term of office, etc.

Now we should list the key features of newspaper information text:

I. Frequent use of phraseological combinations that have the character of a kind of speech cliches.

in reply to

in a statement of

with reference to

to draw the conclusion

to attach the importance

to take into account

II. Using constructions like “verb + that” when presenting someone else’s statement, commenting on statements of political figures, etc.

The paper argues that this decision will seriously handicap the country's economy. - The newspaper believes that this decision will cause serious damage to the country's economy.

III. The use of phraseological combinations like “verb + noun”: to have a discussion instead of to discuss to give support instead of to support to give recognition instead of to recognize

IV. The use of neologisms formed with the help of some productive suffixes, for example: -ism (Bevinism) -ist (Gaullist) -ite (Glasgovite)

V. Widespread use of impersonal phrases as the introductory part of messages, for example:

it is generally believed that ... no general belief ...

it is officially announced that... it is officially announced that...

it is rumored that... there are rumors that...

it is reported that...

it is suggested that ... suggest that ...

VI. Frequent use of abbreviations

The INF Treaty – INF Treaty

Brexit

In syntactic terms, newspaper text is much simpler than the language of scientific and technical publications. It contains less complex grammatical structures and phrases.

Newspaper-information style also has specific features that influence the translation process.

The main task of materials of this style is to communicate certain information from certain positions and thereby achieve the desired effect on the Receptor.

Another feature of newspaper information text can be safely called the presence of polysemantic terms, synonymous terms, as well as abbreviations and names.

So, for example, the term “state” in US political terminology can mean both “state” and “state”. The term "Congressman" can have a broader meaning - "member of the American Congress" or a narrower meaning - "member of the House of Representatives (US Congress)":

For example: Last year a number of American Senators and Congressmen visited the Soviet Union.

Along with “Congressman”, its synonym “Representative” is also used in its narrow meaning. The charters of various organizations may be called in English Regulations, Rules, Constitution, Statutes or Charter. Well-known terms are often used in the text in abbreviated form:

For example: Youth is also virtually excluded from Congress, the average age of members of the Senate being 56 years and of the House 51 years. Here the abbreviated House is used instead of the full term The House of Representatives. The same term can receive different meanings depending on the ideological orientation of the text in which it is used. The term "idealism" can be used in a philosophical sense as the name of a worldview opposed to materialism, and can have a positive or negative meaning depending on the ideological position of the author. But even more often it is used in a positive sense, directly relating to the concept of ideals - “ideals” and meaning “service (commitment) to high ideals (or principles)”:

For example: The Foreign Secretary's most elaborate and numerous speeches seem to prove that idealism is his guiding star.

The widespread use of names and titles in newspaper information style makes the message specific and relates the information being conveyed to specific individuals, institutions or areas. This presupposes significant prior (background) knowledge on the part of the Receptor, allowing it to associate the name with the named object. Thus, the English Receptor, without context, is well aware that Park Lane is a street, Piccadilly Circus is a square, and Columbia Pictures is a film company. Titles and names are often used in newspaper information materials in an abbreviated form. Often these abbreviations may be unknown to the general reader and their meaning is immediately deciphered in the note or message itself. But there are many such abbreviated names that newspaper readers have long been accustomed to and which therefore do not require explanation. The abundance of abbreviations is a characteristic feature of the newspaper and information style of modern English.

In newspaper and information style, abbreviations are very common.

Knowledge of modern, relevant abbreviations is a conscious necessity for a translator.

In English, the newspaper and information style is distinguished by the stylistic diversity of vocabulary. Along with book vocabulary, articles often use colloquial and poetic words and combinations:

For example: Instead of answering the Minister took the line of "you"re another", that other West German Ministries and the police had still more ex-nazis in them than Ms own ministry. The Tories hope to get away with it by invoking their old familiar maxim: When in trouble, Wave the Flag. The much-vaunted the New Frontiers, the Alliance for Progress and other similar programs have joined the snows of the yesteryear. You are another (The Fool Himself), to invoke an old maxim and to join the snows of the yesteryear.

The most concise, business-like and dry in style are messages and articles of an informational nature. Accuracy in the translation of such messages and articles is often achieved by syntactic restructuring of sentences, structural substitutions and the use of lexical correspondences.

From the point of view of phraseological features, English-language newspaper and information texts are saturated with all kinds of clichés. Most often you can find introductory phrases such as: it is reported, it is claimed, our correspondent reports from, according to well-informed sources. In English-language articles there are often stable combinations with worn-out imagery: to set the tone, to throw light, to lay the corner-stone, to give the lie.

The syntactic features of newspaper texts include:

the presence of short independent messages (1-3 statements), consisting of long sentences with a complex structure
maximum division of the text into paragraphs, when almost every sentence begins on a new line, the presence of subheadings in the text body to increase the interest of readers, frequent use numerous attribute groups.

The lexical and grammatical specificity of newspaper information style is especially evident in newspaper headlines.

Features of headlines of newspaper information texts

The features of newspaper texts in Russian are not so clearly expressed. In most cases, the syntax of information materials is bookish in nature with the frequent use of complex, especially complex sentences, participial and adverbial phrases. The use of passive constructions, as well as generalized-personal forms of verbs of information semantics, is also noted. Particular attention should be paid to the nominal nature of newspaper speech, which is expressed, in particular, in the high frequency of denominal prepositions, complex denominative conjunctions, verbal-nominal combinations with a weakened meaning of the verb, etc.

Equivalence when translating newspaper texts

The poor development of the problem of translation equivalence leads to a simplification of ideas about the essence of translation, reduces the explanatory power of the analysis of its specific phenomena and the possibility of linguistic translation research in general, and prevents the creation of a unified scientific picture of translation as an object under study, as a result of which the prospect of its research is partially lost. Therefore, it is necessary to increase the level of translation equivalence and actual adaptation of foreign newspaper and information texts. The texts are of a different nature: newspaper, newspaper-journalistic, historical, popular science and fiction. This selection is due to the desire of the authors to give students the opportunity to become familiar with the features of translating texts of various styles and genres.

The equivalence of translation of newspaper texts rests firmly on several key concepts:

the concept of normative content compliance, that is, the transfer of all or essential elements of the content of the source text and adherence to the norms of the translating language
the concept of formal correspondence, that is, maximum correspondence in conveying the structure of the source text
the concept of adequate translation, which defines the following qualities of adequate translation:
1) comprehensive transmission of the semantic content of the text;
2) transfer of content by equivalent means, that is, adequacy is “an exhaustive transfer of the semantic content of the original and complete functional and stylistic compliance with it.”
the concept of dynamic (functional) equivalence, going back to the concept of dynamic equivalence, first identified by Yu. Naida, similar to the concepts of communicative equivalence, that is, linguistic equivalence in the context of a broader interpretation within the framework of social interaction carried out through text, functional equivalence

Speaking about the problem of equivalence and adequacy of translation of newspaper information text, it is necessary to say that the translation of articles is not a system of transformations and replacements of multi-level units of one language with units of the target language, since it “is a full-fledged speech activity in the target language, in which in the target text the same meanings are objectified as in the original language.

The difficulty of translating newspaper texts lies in the fact that the requirement for the most accurate transmission of a newspaper-journalistic text into another language conflicts with the ability to display all its originality by means of the target language.

The problem of equivalence in the translation of newspaper texts is reflected differently in the translation of English and American headlines. The peculiarities of the development of the press in the USA and England left a bright stylistic imprint on the headlines of newspaper articles.

The Anglo-American press has developed a special style of newspaper headline, a characteristic feature of which is the extreme expressiveness of lexical and grammatical means. Headings, as a rule, are written using the most concise, extremely laconic phrases in which all semantically minor elements are omitted. At the same time, in order to ensure maximum clarity, headings are built on the basis of commonly used vocabulary and simple grammatical means. Let us consider in more detail the lexical and grammatical features of headings and methods of their translation.

One of the most important problems of equivalence in the translation of headlines of newspaper information texts is the absence of past tense forms in them. Instead of the past tense, the present tense forms Present Historicum are used instead.

For example:"Riot Police Greet Print Lobby"; "Horseman Hits Apartheid Trau".

Meanwhile, in the Russian version, past tense forms are used in headings.

For example:"Show made"; "A village was born"; "Prepared for the holiday."

In addition to all of the above, in the English-language press there are no personal forms of the future tense verb in the headlines. The infinitive is used as their equivalent.

For example:"Maudesley Ward to Shut During the Holidays"; "NATO to Test Air Power in Europe"; "MPs to Ask Questions on Cruise"; "President to Visit Europe".

Translation transformations in newspaper discourse

Transformations that can be used to make the transition from original units to translation units in the specified sense are called translation (interlingual) transformations. Since translation transformations are carried out with linguistic units that have both a content plan and a plan of expression, they are of a formal semantic nature, transforming both the form and the meaning of the original units.

As part of the description of the translation process, translation transformations are considered not in a static sense as a means of analyzing the relationships between language units and their dictionary correspondences, but in a dynamic sense as translation methods that a translator can use when translating various originals in cases where there is no dictionary correspondence or can be used depending on the context.

Depending on the nature of the foreign language units, which are considered as initial ones in the transformation operation, translation transformations are divided into lexical and grammatical. In addition, there are also complex lexical-grammatical transformations, where the transformations either affect simultaneously the lexical and grammatical units of the original, or are cross-level, i.e. make the transition from lexical units to grammatical units and vice versa. The main types of lexical transformations used in the translation process involving various FLs and TLs include the following translation techniques: translation transcription and transliteration, tracing and lexical-semantic replacements (specification, generalization, modulation).

The most common grammatical transformations include those shown in the figure below.

Complex lexico-grammatical transformations include antonymic translation, explication (descriptive translation) and compensation.

Let us consider the features of transformations when translating newspaper texts. For example, when translating from Russian into English, the Russian noun phrase used in a newspaper headline, where the noun in them. case means process, and the noun in gender. case - agent, is often transformed into a sentence in which the subject and process are expressed respectively by the name - subject and verb - predicate (in modern times): "Attack of racists on front-line states" - "Racists Attack Front-Line States"; "Opening of the Congress of the BZNS (Bulgarian Agricultural People's Union)" - "Agrarian Congress Opens in Bulgaria"; “Completion of the festival in Mexico” – “Festival Closes in Mexico”.

Speaking about the translation of newspaper texts, we note that it is the headlines that require a wide variety of translation operations, determined by discrepancies in the typical structure of the headlines, the ambiguity of their semantic interpretation, discrepancies in the set of lexical units used in the headlines, expressive and stylistic factors, as well as the semantic relationship between the text and title. These operations include the following:

grammatical and semantic formations,
interlevel (lexico-grammatical) formations,
replacing the original title with a new one that corresponds to the norms of a given genre in the target language.

From the above it follows that there are organic connections between the title and the main text. The title is most closely related to the beginning, which, like the title, is characterized by relative rigidity of the structure. In the Anglo-American press, the most common opening summary is defined as the opening sentence or sentences that summarize the main content of the note. Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn:

Newspaper text is richly saturated with special terms related to political and state life.
In newspaper information materials, some features of the syntactic organization of the text are also noted: the presence of short independent messages.
Special translation theory describes various forms of stylistic adaptation when translating texts belonging to a specific functional style.
In general, newspaper text is characterized by a desire for conciseness and laconism of presentation, and this feature is especially pronounced in newspaper headlines.
A complete translation of newspaper material, in addition to the factually accurate rendering of the content, must convey to the reader all the emotional elements contained in the original, as well as its political orientation.
If English headings are characterized by the use of verb forms, and Russian headings are characterized by nominal forms, then during translation it is necessary to make the appropriate restructuring.

Translation tools for newspaper texts

The main types of lexical transformations used in the translation process involving various FLs and TLs include the following translation techniques:

translation transcription and transliteration,
tracing and lexical-semantic replacements (specification, generalization, modulation).

To translate newspaper and information texts from English into Russian, all the main known methods are used.

Methods of translation from FL to PL

Separately, we should highlight such a method of translating newspaper information text as modulation or semantic development. Using this method, the translator replaces the FL word with a TL word with a re-interpreted meaning.

For example:"A politician must have a twisted conspiratorial mindset to even attempt to deny the obvious." “A politician must have a twisted mind and a conspiracy theory nut to deny the obvious” (Guardian).

From the above example it is clear that the modulation adjective "conspiratorial" has undergone modulation. The reason for this was the impossibility of adequately forming a direct translation, since the “mindset” cannot be “conspiratorial.”

Sentences are not always translated using various grammatical transformations. Sometimes the sentence structure in the target language is completely preserved.

Newspaper information texts contain phraseological units. Therefore, much attention is paid to the peculiarities of their translation. The fact is that the nature and methods of using interlingual translation correspondences are largely determined by the peculiarities of the semantics of phraseological units, which is a complex informative complex. From the point of view of choosing a translation match, the most important components of this complex are those presented in the figure below.

There are not always linguistic parallels between the FL and the TL - structural and semantic analogies: identical models of phraseological combinations, complete coincidence of the semantic meanings of the words included in their composition, etc. In addition, the search for interlingual correspondences does not always give a positive result, since in the field of phraseology the phenomenon of random gaps is observed, i.e. such “units of the dictionary of one of the languages, which for some reason (not always clear) do not have a correspondence in the lexical composition (in the form of words or set phrases) of another language” In these cases, transformational techniques and methods of translation are necessary.

Transcription and transliteration techniques are used to convey certain phraseological units or their components. In modern translation practice, preference is given to transcription in combination with elements of transliteration: Downing Street, Pandora's box, Punch and Judy. The disadvantage of these techniques is that they can lead to the appearance of unusual and obscure words in the translation text.

So, when translating a newspaper text from a foreign language to the TL of the press, such transformational techniques and translation methods as grammatical substitutions (word forms, parts of speech, members of sentences), lexical-semantic substitutions (generalization, specification, logical synonymy), permutations, additions, deletions, compensation and antonymic translation.

Since when translating press texts it is necessary to adequately convey the imagery and expressiveness of English phraseological units, it is almost impossible to replace the translator with a machine or computer. Machine translation tools cannot capture all the subtleties of the source and target texts, especially in the field of phraseology. Only a person is able to convey the original text as clearly, figuratively and expressively, using all the variety of translation techniques and all the richness of the TL.

It is necessary to more regularly update dictionaries, reference books and teaching aids on phraseology, since the language of the press is constantly enriched with new phraseological units. This will help improve the quality of intercultural communication.

Literature

Levitskaya T. R., A. M. Fiterman Theory and practice of translation from English into Russian Publishing house of literature in foreign languages. Moscow 1963
Komisarov V.N., Theory and practice of translation M.: Enlightenment 1980.
Latyshev L.K. Social determination of translation and translation equivalence // Text as a tool of communication. M., 1983
Retsker Ya.I. Translation theory and translation practice. M., 1974.
Schweitzer A.D. Translation and linguistics. M., 1973
Tsareva E. E. Specifics of translation of newspaper headlines // Bulletin of the Kazan Technological University. 2010. No. 3.
Barkhudarov L.S. Language and translation. – M.: Higher School, 1975

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Introduction

Thus, the translation of a scientific text cannot be reduced to searching only for direct terminological correspondences. We define it as a complex thought process that involves identifying and conveying the meaning of scientific concepts.

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of considering the features of translation of set phrases and terminological cliches based on scientific texts and dissertations

1.1 Characteristics of scientific and technical language

There are many definitions of the concept of scientific and technical translation, translation of scientific and technical text.

The features of the scientific and technical text were most clearly highlighted by V.N. Komissarov. He points out that the language of scientific and technical literature is characterized by the following features:

7. Use of abbreviations and symbols. This and the following characteristic are a consequence of the desire for brevity and clarity.

8. The use of special expressions and lexicographical structures (such as: centers, and/or, on/off, etc.).

it is necessary to reveal the meaning of the combination of words “High strength to size”, which is only possible if you understand the essence of the matter:

“High strength-to-dimensional ratio and cost are the main criteria when evaluating materials.”

The highlighted words compensate for the loss of information contained in the original that would occur in a literal translation.

Only ignorance of the subject can push the translator to preserve the word order of the original when translating the following sentence:

"In this case one curve passes through each point of the plane."

"In this case, one curve passes through each point of the plane."

It turns out that one curve covers the entire plane, since it passes through all its points. In fact, the original talks about a family of curves; only rearranging the word order gives the correct translation:

"In this case, one curve passes through each point of the plane."

1.2 General concept of terminological clichés and set phrases in translation theory

The study of the scientific understanding of terms and their features is not only included in the scope of research in the science of translation studies. Lexicology also deals with these problems.

Therefore, the term is both informational and intellectual.

1. Terms, which are single words, are often formed by using productive methods of word formation. Therefore, it is useful to remember the meaning of the main word-forming affixes in English, which are productive in constructing scientific and technical terms.

Suffixes - er, - or are used to form nouns denoting specialists, machines, mechanisms, devices, etc.: estimator-designer, calculator; excavator - earthmoving machine, excavator; bulldozer - bulldozer.

The suffixes - ist, - ant, as in the Russian language, are used to form nouns denoting specialists: chemist - chemist; consultant - consultant.

Suffixes - ing - ment express processes, although they are also found in nouns denoting objects:

curing-curing, care of concrete (during the hardening period); replacement-replacement, replacement; building-building, structure; embankment - embankment, dam.

"It is better to overplant than to underplant." The meaning of the prefix over: over-, over-, above-, excessively; meaning of the prefix under: under-, below - necessary or usual. From here, knowing that the verb “to plant” in this context means “to mechanize,” we get the translation:

“It is better to mechanize too much than to mechanize too little.”

"Screen analyzes showed that there was deficiency in cobbles."

In this case, the word "cobble" cannot be translated as "cobblestone". We are talking about sieve analysis of natural coarse aggregate and the word “cobbles” must be understood as stones with a diameter of 8 to 15 cm:

“Sieve analysis revealed a lack of fraction 8-15 cm.”

In other cases, there is no lexical correspondence whatsoever: mountain flour kieselguhr, diatomaceous earth; pot hole - pothole (on the road); sound pressure level meter - sound level meter.

4. Since terms - complex words in most cases have a two-component composition, it is useful to state them in some system general rules translation of such terms.

a) If the first element means a substance or material, and the second element means an object, then the complex term is translated into Russian according to the scheme: “adjective - noun”: concrete pile - concrete pile; steel bridge - steel bridge.

b) If the first element is a substance or material, and the second is an object that affects this material or produces it, then the translation is made according to the scheme:

"noun in the noun. Pad. (2nd element) 4 - noun in the noun. Pad. (1st element)": sand classifier - classifier of sand; steam superheater - steam superheater.

However, sometimes the translation is made using prepositions: mud mixer - clay mixer. Or both elements merge when translated into one word: concrete mixer concrete mixer; stone breaker - stone crusher.

Nevertheless, the main method always gives positive results (clay stirrer, stone crusher), which help to find the most successful translation.

c) If the first element is an object, and the second is an action aimed at this object, then the translation is done according to the scheme: “a noun in nominal pad. (2nd element) - a noun in gender pad. (1st element) ": stone breaking - crushing stone; water treatment - water purification.

f) If the first element is part of the second, then the translation is performed according to the scheme: “adjective (1st element) - noun (2nd element)”: jaw crusher - jaw crusher; ball mill - ball mill.

The examples given do not cover all possible constructions and methods of translation and should be considered as a general guide to the translation of terms - complex words of a two-component composition. * Deviations from the stated rules on all points are possible.

When translated into Russian, a term can take the form of a single word, or it can be a Russian stable phrase: as mentioned above, the phraseological funds of two different languages ​​do not coincide.

1.3 Signs of terminological clichés and set phrases as the basis for their classification

First of all, the most general concepts of matter and its attributes are highlighted, which are called categories (matter, space, time, quantity, quality, measure, and others). Accordingly, terms that denote categories are a type of category terms.

All of the above types of concepts find their linguistic embodiment in types of terms. Category terms, general scientific and general technical terms, interdisciplinary terms, and special terms are distinguished (examples were given when listing the types of concepts).

This:

3) the presence of terms with blurred boundaries of the concepts they denote, for example, terms denoting general concepts of a social nature (personality, ideal);

4) wider development of synonymy and polysemy than in term systems of natural and technical sciences (language is a polysemantic term);

5) the inclusion of an evaluative factor in the semantics of terms (compare terms such as renegade, red, white, and green “green parties”).

Indicators are a set of characteristics characterized by the given data. The name of the indicator includes terms meaning:

a) characterized (measured) object of the economy (products, workers);

b) states, properties of these objects and the processes that occur with them (presence or number (of workers), production (of products));

c) a formal method (algorithm) for calculating an indicator, for example, volume (of product sales).

Within the superstructure, the administrative and political sphere (which includes defense, justice, foreign relations and others) and the socio-cultural sphere (health, science, culture, education and others) are distinguished.

Classification of terms according to the object of naming within individual areas of knowledge is the most detailed classification of terms.

Linguistic classifications of terms are based on the characteristics of terms as words or phrases of a certain language.

Classification according to the content (semantic) structure allows us to distinguish unambiguous terms (bypass, nut, chromosome) and polysemantic terms, that is, those that have two or more meanings within one terminology system (court - 1. a set of judges and assessors;

2. court hearing;

3. courthouse). From the point of view of semantics, terms are distinguished - free phrases (muffle furnace, certificate of residence) and stable (including phraseological) phrases (universal gravity).

Depending on the source language, the terms are primordial (sensor), borrowed (display - shal, crosscut - German), hybrid (metallurgy, anti-icing).

The classification of terms by authorship reflects a sociological approach to terms. Collective and individual terms are known in this regard. Thus, the term helicopter was created by Leonardo da Vinci, the term industry was created by N.M. Karamzin, the term sociology - O. Comte.

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When translated into Russian, a term can take the form of a single word, or it can be a Russian stable phrase: as mentioned above, the phraseological funds of two different languages do not coincide.